Is international affairs too ‘hard’ for women? Explaining the missing women in Australia's international affairs

Abstract

Women are demonstrably under-represented at senior levels in Australia's international affairs. Empirical evidence shows a continuing gender imbalance in leadership positions, including in the Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade, the Department of Defence and academia. Two explanations commonly offered are that women are less motivated or lack interest in ‘hard’ international relations. These explanations are found to be unconvincing, given studies showing similar levels of ambition and interest at recruitment. Four alternative explanations are offered to account for the scarcity of female leaders in Australia's international affairs: the legacy of direct discrimination, continued indirect discrimination, inadequate support for women who balance work and family responsibilities, and socially constructed gender norms. Instead of the subject matter of international relations being too ‘hard’, or inherently masculine, it appears that it is the combined impact of these factors that has made it ‘hard’, or difficult, for women to progress to senior levels. In order to show how these barriers can be overcome, three case studies are presented of women who have achieved senior positions: Professor Emeritus Helen Hughes, Her Excellency Ms Penny Wensley and Professor Hilary Charlesworth. These examples suggest strategies that women can use to further their careers and measures that can be implemented in workplaces to improve the representation of senior women in Australia's international affairs.

在澳大利亚的国际事务中，妇女显然在高层缺乏代表性。实证资料证明，就外交和贸易部、国防部及学术界的领导岗位而言，性别失衡越来越严重。两个常见的解释是，对于“坚硬”的国际关系，妇女动机不足，缺乏兴趣。这样的解释是没有说服力的，因为研究证明在求职时两性的抱负及兴趣是差不多的。作者为澳大利亚国际事务中女性领导的稀缺找到四种解释：直接歧视的传统；持续不断的间接歧视；对工作家庭要兼顾的妇女缺少必要的支持；社会构建的性别规范。国际关系的话题本身并非太“坚硬”、太“雄性”，倒是以上因素联手把它搞得太硬太难，让女性此路不通。本文介绍了三个女性即海伦·胡斯荣誉教授、本尼·文思丽阁下以及希拉里·查尔斯沃丝教授获得高位的个案研究，说明这些障碍其实是可以克服的。这些范例推荐了一些策略，女性可以用来推进其人生事业，还推荐了一些职场手段，可以改善高端女性在澳大利亚国际事务中的代表性。

Keywords:

• Australia
• discrimination
• feminist analysis
• international affairs
• women

Notes

1. The views expressed in this article are the authors' own.

2. Officer of the Order of Australia.

3. AC stands for Companion of the Order of Australia.