ABSTRACT
Investigation of crime is central to the function and purpose of law enforcement. Contemporary investigation depends on a sophisticated arsenal of theories and techniques interacting with law and its institutions in a variety of ways, including authorised unlawful activity. Drawing on Foucault, this article re-imagines the investigation and associated legal architectures as apparatus; a rationality and strategy of governance shaped by intersecting knowledge formations. The paper considers the key characteristics of investigation and its relationship with law, concluding that investigations practices are a form of apparatus, and that aspects of these practices are grounded in a theological dynamic based on surveillance.
Acknowledgements
The author is grateful for the time and generous feedback offered by the anonymous reviewers of this paper.
Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author.
Notes
3 Eg A v Hayden (1984) 156 CLR 532; Teixeria de Castro v Portugal (EHRR, 9 June 1998, Reports of Judgments and Decisions 1998-IV); Olmstead v United States 277 US 438 (1928); Katz v United States 389 US 347 (1967); R v Looseley [2001] 4 All ER 897.
5 Of course, these may also be tortious, but for present purposes, the focus is on criminal law.
6 Eg in NSW investigations, operations inducing a person not reasonably expected to engage in those actions; that seriously endanger participants or property; and involving sexual offences may not be authorised. See Law Enforcement (Controlled Operations) Act 1997 (NSW), s7.
9 Oxford English Dictionary.
23 Marx (Citation1974, Citation1980, Citation1981, Citation1982, Citation1985, Citation1987, Citation1988, Citation1992a, Citation1992b); Fijnaut and Marx (Citation1995). The table is adapted from Marx (Citation1988, p 12, Table 1).
29 There are dozens of statutes in Australia regulating investigation. In NSW, see, eg, Law Enforcement (Powers and Responsibilities) Act 2002 (NSW).
30 At common law see R v Ireland (1970) 126 CLR 321; Bunning v Cross (1978) 141 CLR 54; R v Ridgeway (1995) 184 CLR 19. Under uniform evidence legislation, see s138 Evidence Act 1995.
31 Telecommunications (Interception and Access) Act 1979 (Cth); Telecommunications (Interception and Access)(New South Wales) Act 1979 (NSW); Telecommunications (Interception)(Northern Territory) Act 2001 (NT); Telecommunications Interception Act 2009 (Qld); Telecommunications (Interception) Act 1988 (SA); Telecommunications (Interception) Tasmania Act 1999 (Tas); Telecommunications (State Provisions) Act 1998 (Vic); Telecommunications (Interception and Access) Western Australia Act 2004 (WA).
32 Surveillance Devices Act 2004 (Cth); Crimes (Surveillance Devices) Act 2010 (ACT); Surveillance Devices Act 2007 (NSW); Surveillance Devices Act 2007 (NT); Crime and Misconduct Act 2001 (Qld); Listening and Surveillance Devices Act 1972 (SA); Police Powers (Surveillance Devices) Act 2006 (Tas); Surveillance Devices Act 1999 (Vic); Surveillance Devices Act 1998 (WA).
33 There is a complex web of limitations and exclusion of admissions arising under common and uniform evidence law. Eg Part 3.4 Evidence Act 1995; R v Swaffield; Pavic v The Queen (1998) 192 CLR 159.
40 Australian Law Reform Commission (ALRC) (Citation1975), p 106.
43 Eg R v Vuckov and Romeo (1986) 40 SASR 498; R v Papoulias [1988] VicRep 76; R v Venn-Brown (1991) 1 Qd R 458; R v Hsing (1991) 25 NSWLR 685; Ridgeway v The Queen (1995) 184 CLR 19.
46 Ridgeway v The Queen (1995) 184 CLR 19.
47 For analysis of Ridgeway and its aftermath, see Murphy (Citation2014).
48 Eg section 16 of the Law Enforcement (Controlled Operations) Act 1997 (NSW) provides:
Despite any other Act or law, an activity that is engaged in by a participant in an authorised operation in the course of, and for the purposes of, the operation is not unlawful, and does not constitute an offence or corrupt conduct, so long as it is authorised by, and is engaged in in accordance with, the authority for the operation.
49 Nominated participants are authorised to act unlawfully in the bona fide execution of the investigation, and are immune from liability. Section 18(1) of the Law Enforcement (Controlled Operations) Act 1997 (NSW), for example, provides:
Despite any other Act or law, an activity that is engaged in by a person: (a) in connection with a controlled activity, or (b) in connection with an activity referred to in section 17 … is not unlawful, and does not constitute an offence or corrupt conduct, so long as it is engaged in (whether by a participant in an authorised operation or otherwise) in the course of, and for the purposes of, an authorised operation.
50 Investigations must be for ‘criminal’ or ‘corrupt activity’, and may only be issued when the authorising officer has reasonable grounds to suspect the activity reported has, is likely or is taking place, or will take place in the future. See the Law Enforcement (Controlled Operations) Act 1997 (NSW), ss 3, 6.
51 An ordinary authority in NSW has a duration of 6 months, while an urgent authority has a lifespan of 72 hours. Variations are permissible. See Law Enforcement (Controlled Operations) Act 1997 (NSW), ss 8, 10, 12.
52 In NSW only the CEO of the organisation (as defined) is able to authorise a controlled operation. However, there is capacity for a limited delegation to subordinate, but nevertheless senior officers, to authorise. See Law Enforcement (Controlled Operations) Act 1997 (NSW), ss 5, 29.
53 A Code of Conduct for controlled operations is a statutory requirement arising under s20 of the Law Enforcement (Controlled Operations) Act 1997 (NSW). See also Law Enforcement (Controlled Operations) Regulation 2012 (NSW), Schedule 2.
54 In NSW warrants may not be issued where there is (i) a serious risk of injury, safety, loss or damage to property; (ii) any risk of a sexual offence; (iii) may not involve using a person without adequate training in the investigation; (iv) involve civilians, unless impractical otherwise. In addition, an operation may not involve entrapment as a primary investigative method. See Law Enforcement (Controlled Operations) Act 1997 (NSW), s7.
55 In NSW, written reports from investigations must be provided to authorising officer within two months of completion. See Law Enforcement (Controlled Operations) Act 1997 (NSW), s15.
56 In NSW the Ombudsman has annual reporting obligations to Parliament, and is required to inspect the records of the various authorities annually. See Law Enforcement (Controlled Operations) Act 1997 (NSW), Part 4.
57 R v Ridgeway (1995) 184 CLR 19.
60 Misuse of Drugs Act 1975 (NZ), ss34, 34A.
63 United Nations Convention Against Illicit Traffic in Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances (1988), esp. Article 11.
64 See Oxford English Dictionary; contrast Macquarie Dictionary.
74 Foucault's work is complex and nuanced, and it is fair to say there is more written about Foucault than he wrote himself. This is made even more complicated by the fact his work evolved over time, including his conception of dispositif. See Behrent (Citation2013); Golder and Fitzpatrick (Citation2009).
82 Eg A v Hayden (1984) 156 CLR 532.
85 It is important to observe that Foucault did not address the distinction between the continental practice, based on an inquisitorial model, and the adversarial tradition that emerged in England.
88 Embodied in the maxim Actus non facit reum, nisi mens sit rea. See Haughton v Smith [1976] AC 476.
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