ABSTRACT
Using a mixed-method analysis, this paper examines the effect of working holiday makers (WHMs) on the labour market for low-skilled work in the horticulture industry. Since the inception of the WHM visa in 1975, the horticulture industry has come to rely increasingly on WHMs as the core source of labour for picking and packing fruit and vegetables. This reliance has altered employers’ expectations of labour flexibility, cost and productivity and has limited the role of local workers in the industry in many locations. At the same time, there is evidence of widespread exploitation of WHMs in the industry. There is a difficult policy challenge of how to address the problems of exploitation while maintaining a reliable labour supply for the industry. The article draws on the growing literature considering the role of temporary labour migration on national labour markets to frame the analysis of WHMs in Australian horticulture, and concludes with suggestions for how the horticulture labour market can be reformed through appropriate, targeted regulation of temporary migrants in the industry.
Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.
Notes on contributors
Alex Reilly is Professor of Law and the Director of the Public Law and Policy Research Unit at the University of Adelaide. Alex researches and teaches in the areas of migration, citizenship, constitutional law and Indigenous legal issues. He has co-authored two books, Australian Public Law and Rights and Redemption: History, Law and Indigenous People, and co-edited an international collection on Indigenous sovereignty, Sovereignty: Frontiers of Possibility. Alex contributes to policy debates in his areas of expertise, writing regularly on refugee issues in The Conversation and other media outlets, and contributing to the work of government and parliamentary inquiries.
Joanna Howe is Associate Professor of Law at the University of Adelaide and a consultant with Harmers Workplace Lawyers. She holds a Doctorate of Philosophy in Law from the University of Oxford where she studied as a Rhodes Scholar. Joanna is a leading Australian expert on the legal regulation of temporary labour migration. Joanna is the author and co-editor of three books and her work is internationally recognised. Her edited collection (with Rosemary Owens) Temporary Labour Migration in the Global Era is the seminal international work on the regulation of transnational migration flows between countries on a temporary basis, and her monograph Rethinking Job Security provides a three country study of unfair dismissal law.
Diane van den Broek is Associate Professor of Work and Organisational Studies at the University of Sydney Business School. She is also Co-Convenor of the Migrants@Work Research Group. With her Co-Convenor, Dimitria Groutsis, Diane has initiated numerous projects and events that develop important conversations with policy-makers, practitioners and academics on the issues of work and migration in Australia. As well as issues related to work and migration, Diane undertakes research on workplace diversity and inclusion, lookism, identity and aesthetic labour and global work.
Chris F. Wright is a Research Fellow in the Discipline of Work and Organisational Studies at the University of Sydney Business School. He has a Ph.D. in Politics and International Studies from the University of Cambridge. Chris’s research covers various issues relating to the intersection of employment, globalisation and public policy, with a particular interest in immigration, labour market regulation and supply chains. He has written commissioned research reports for the UK, Dutch and Australian governments, the International Labour Organization and the Lowy Institute for International Policy and is the author of over 50 scholarly publications including many articles in leading business, management, political science and economics journals.
Notes
2 Bauder (Citation2006), p 4. Bauder (p 15) quotes Castells (Citation1975), ‘migration and labor markets affect each other: migration flows regulate labor markets, and labor markets shape migration flows’. See also, Ruhs and Anderson (Citation2010); Waldinger and Lichter (Citation2003).
3 Underhill and Rimmer (Citation2016); Interview with Growers (Focus Group, Wanneroo, Western Australia, 12 March 2018).
7 Senate Standing Committee on Employment, Workplace Relations and Education (Citation2006), p 5.
9 Curtain et al (Citation2016). The International Labour Organization says that it is incumbent upon national governments
to create ‘instruments of governance which guarantee a fair share of the prosperity which migration helps to create’ for temporary migrant workers in recognition of their contribution to the societies and economies in which they work: International Labour Organization (Citation2014), p 4 (authors’ emphasis).
12 See eg Costello and Freedland (Citation2014); Castles and Kosack (Citation1973). Rosewarne (Citation2010) describes temporary labour migrants as a new proletariat, marked by lack of power in the labour market.
44 Wright and Clibborn (Citation2017). See eg Roach (Citation1995); House of Representatives Standing Committee on Employment, Workplace Relations and Workforce Participation (Citation2007), pp 146–147; Senate Standing Committee on Employment, Workplace Relations and Education (Citation2006), pp vii–ix.
47 Joint Standing Committee on Migration (Citation1997), p 9 [2.22].
48 Joint Standing Committee on Migration (Citation1997), p 9 [2.22].
50 This fee had been $440 but was reduced to $390 in the Treasury Laws Amendment (Working Holiday Reform) Act 2016 (Cth).
54 Department of Immigration and Border Protection, Australian Government, Procedures Advice Manual 3 (PAM3) sch 2 Visa 416 — Special Program [P Sch2.416-2.4].
60 At its 2017 conference the AWU identified agriculture as one of six priority membership growth areas after commissioning research from Professor David Peetz, see: ‘Pilot Schemes Aims to Build Relationship with Members’, Workplace Express (online), 27 February 2017.
72 Department of Employment, Workplace Relations and Small Business (Citation2000), in Hanson and Bell (Citation2007), p 106.
79 Joint Standing Committee on Migration (Citation1997), p xx.
82 Joint Standing Committee on Migration (Citation1997), p 103.
83 Joint Standing Committee on Migration (Citation1997), p xxvi.
84 Joint Standing Committee on Migration (Citation1997), p 104.
85 Joint Standing Committee on Migration (Citation1997), pp 147–151.
86 The Swan Hill Rural City Council noted an increase in reliance on WHMs who were reliable and hardworking and an important backup supply of labour: Joint Standing Committee on Migration (Citation1997), p 41. The Riverina Area Consultative Committee stated that the need for WHMs arose because low unemployment levels means there are ‘not sufficient local people to work during peak harvest season’: Joint Standing Committee on Migration (Citation1997), p 42.
87 Joint Standing Committee on Migration (Citation1997), p 41.
88 Joint Standing Committee on Migration (Citation1997), p 41.
89 Joint Standing Committee on Migration (Citation1997), p 40.
90 Joint Standing Committee on Migration (Citation1997), p xxxii.
91 The countries are: Germany, Sweden, Norway, Denmark, Hong Kong, Finland, Cyprus, Italy, France, Taiwan, Belgium, Estonia and the Netherlands.
93 The subclass 462 agreement countries are: Thailand, Chile, Turkey, U.S.A., Malaysia, Indonesia, Bangladesh, Argentina, Uruguay, Poland, Portugal, Spain, China, Slovak Republic, Slovenia, Israel, Hungary, San Marino, Luxembourg and Vietnam.
94 United Working Holiday Makers in Australia (Citation2015), p 7.
95 Department of Immigration and Border Protection (Citation2016), p 25.
96 The JSCM noted these as reasons not to extend the WH visa beyond one year in its 1997 report.
106 Harding and Webster (Citation2002), p 45 (emphasis omitted).
108 Tan and Lester (Citation2012), pp 373–374. Tan’s estimation of the proportion of WHMs in the harvest workforce is supported by a Horticulture Innovation Australia estimate that in 2008 the horticulture workforce was constituted of 38% backpackers, 34% locals, 7% students. See also Fair Work Ombudsman (Citation2016). However, caution needs to be exercised in making these comparisons as the sources underpinning these datasets will invariably be different. Similarly, as discussed above, our survey of vegetable growers in 2016 revealed that 72% of growers had engaged WHMs in the last five years.
126 Fair Work Ombudsman (Citation2016), p 10. The Fair Work Ombudsman’s report noted that there is no legal requirement for employers to sign the Employment Verification Form and there are no penalties for employers who refuse to sign the form in a situation where a visa holder has in fact completed these work requirements.
127 Fair Work Ombudsman (Citation2016), p 33 (authors’ emphasis).
136 Joint Standing Committee on Migration (Citation1997), pp 46–47.
144 Underhill and Rimmer (Citation201Citation6). A regulatory change in 2016 requiring the provision of payslips as evidence of work for the visa extension may affect this unofficial market.
152 Migration Regulations 1994 (Cth) cl 417.211.
153 Lin (Migration) [2017] AATA 648.
165 Ninety-nine per cent of migrants maintain their lawful status in Australia. Department of Immigration and Border Protection (Citation2017), p 256.
167 Department of Immigration and Border Protection (Citation2017b).
176 See, in particular, recent changes to the 457 visa program in early 2017: Department of Immigration and Border Protection (Citation2017a). See also, Australian government debates over appropriate levels of migration: Karp (Citation2018).
Manuel Castells (1975) ‘Immigrant Workers and Class Struggles in Advanced Capitalism: The Western European Experience’ 5 Politics & Society 33. doi: 10.1177/003232927500500102 Martin Ruhs and Bridget Anderson (2010) Who Needs Migrant Workers? Labour Storages, Immigration, and Public Policy, Oxford University Press. Harald Bauder (2006) Labor Movement: How Migration Regulates Labor Markets, Oxford University Press. Manuel Castells (1975) ‘Immigrant Workers and Class Struggles in Advanced Capitalism: The Western European Experience’ 5 Politics & Society 33. doi: 10.1177/003232927500500102 Martin Ruhs and Bridget Anderson (2010) Who Needs Migrant Workers? Labour Storages, Immigration, and Public Policy, Oxford University Press. Roger Waldinger and Michael Lichter (2003) How the Other Half Works: Immigration and the Social Organization of Labor, University of California Press. Elsa Underhill and Malcolm Rimmer (2016) ‘Layered Vulnerability: Temporary Migrants in Australian Horticulture’ 58 Journal of Industrial Relations 608. doi: 10.1177/0022185615600510 Joanna Howe et al (2017) ‘ Sustainable Solutions: The Future of Labour Supply in the Australian Vegetable Industry’ (Horticulture Innovation Australia). Fair Work Ombudsman (2016) ‘ Inquiry into the Wages and Conditions of People Working under the 417 Working Holiday Visa Program’. Joint Standing Committee on Migration (1997) Working Holiday Makers: More than Tourists (Australian Parliament House). Senate Standing Committee on Employment, Workplace Relations and Education (2006) ‘ Perspectives on the Future of the Harvest Labour Force’ (Commonwealth of Australia). Stephen Castles, Hein de Haas and Mark J Miller (2014) The Age of Migration: International Population Movements in the Modern World, 5th ed, Palgrave MacMillan. Richard Curtain et al (2016) ‘ Pacific Possible: Labour Mobility: The Ten Billion Dollar Prize’ (Australian National University and The World Bank). International Labour Organization (2014) Fair Migration: Setting an ILO Agenda (Report of the Director-General, International Labour Conference 103rd Session). John Gibson and David McKenzie (2014) ‘The Development Impact of a Best Practice Seasonal Worker Policy’ 96 Review of Economics and Statistics 229. doi: 10.1162/REST_a_00383 Martin Ruhs (2013) The Price of Rights: Regulating International Labor Migration, Princeton University Press. Stephen Castles, Hein de Haas and Mark J Miller (2014) The Age of Migration: International Population Movements in the Modern World, 5th ed, Palgrave MacMillan. Stuart Rosewarne (2010) ‘Globalisation and the Commodification of Labour: Temporary Labour Migration’ 20 The Economic and Labour Relations Review 99. doi: 10.1177/103530461002000207 Cathryn Costello and Mark Freedland (eds) (2014) Migrants at Work: Immigration and Vulnerability in Labour Law, Oxford University Press. Stephen Castles and Godula Kosack (1973) Immigrant Workers and Class Structure in Western Europe, Oxford University Press. Stuart Rosewarne (2010) ‘Globalisation and the Commodification of Labour: Temporary Labour Migration’ 20 The Economic and Labour Relations Review 99. doi: 10.1177/103530461002000207 Judy Fudge (2012) ‘Precarious Migrant Status and Precarious Employment: The Paradox of International Rights for Migrant Workers’ 34 Comparative Labor Law & Policy Journal 95. Anna Boucher (2016) ‘“‘Australia’s De Facto Low Skilled Migration Programs” in Committee for Economic Development of Australia’ Migration: The Economic Debate. Jérôme Gautié and John Schmitt (2010) Low-Wage Work in the Wealthy World, Russell Sage Foundation. Joo-Cheong Tham, Iain Campbell and Martina Boese (2016) ‘Labour Protection of Temporary Migrant Workers’ in Howe and Owens’ Temporary Labour Migration in the Global Era. Robert Miles (1987) Capitalism and Unfree Labour: Anomaly or Necessity?, Tavistock Publications. Judy Fudge and Kentra Strauss (eds) (2013) Temporary Work, Agencies, and Unfree Labor: Insecurity in the New World of Work, Routledge. Lan Anh Hoang and Brenda S A Yeoh (eds) (2015) Transnational Labour Migration, Remittances and the Changing Family in Asia, Palgrave MacMillan. Peter Mares (2016a) Not Quite Australian: How Temporary Migration is Unsettling the Settler Society, Text Publishing Co. Martin Ruhs and Bridget Anderson (2010) Who Needs Migrant Workers? Labour Storages, Immigration, and Public Policy, Oxford University Press. Martin Ruhs (2013) The Price of Rights: Regulating International Labor Migration, Princeton University Press. Roger Waldinger and Michael Lichter (2003) How the Other Half Works: Immigration and the Social Organization of Labor, University of California Press. Peter Doeringer and Michael Piore (1971) Internal Labour Markets and Manpower Analysis, Heath, Lexington Mass. Di van den Broek, William Harvey and Dimitria Groutsis (2016) ‘Commercial Migration Intermediaries and the Segmentation of Skilled Migrant Employment’ 30 Work, Employment and Society 523. doi: 10.1177/0950017015594969 Di van den Broek, William Harvey and Dimitria Groutsis (2016) ‘Commercial Migration Intermediaries and the Segmentation of Skilled Migrant Employment’ 30 Work, Employment and Society 523. doi: 10.1177/0950017015594969 Anne Green, Gaby Atfield, and Kate Purcell. (2016) ‘Fuelling displacement and labour market segmentation in low-skilled jobs? Insights from a local study of migrant and student employment’ 48 Environment and Planning A 577. doi: 10.1177/0308518X15614327 Elaine Moriarity et al (2012) ‘Taking on Almost Everyone?’ Migrant and Employer Recruitment Strategies in a Booming Labour Market’ 23 International Journal of Human Resource Management 1871. doi: 10.1080/09585192.2011.610338 Roger Waldinger and Michael Lichter (2003) How the Other Half Works: Immigration and the Social Organization of Labor, University of California Press. Martin Ruhs and Bridget Anderson (2010) Who Needs Migrant Workers? Labour Storages, Immigration, and Public Policy, Oxford University Press. Martin Ruhs and Bridget Anderson (2010) Who Needs Migrant Workers? Labour Storages, Immigration, and Public Policy, Oxford University Press. Michael J Piore (1979) Birds of Passage: Migrant Labor and Industrial Societies, Cambridge University Press. Harald Bauder (2006) Labor Movement: How Migration Regulates Labor Markets, Oxford University Press. Joanna Howe and Rosemary Owens (eds) (2016) Temporary Labour Migration in the Global Era: The Regulatory Challenges, Hart Publishing. Scott Sam (2013a) ‘Migration and the Employer Perspective: Pitfalls and Potentials for a Future Research Agenda’ 19 Population, Space and Place 703. Scott Sam (2013b) ‘Migrant–Local Hiring Queues in the UK Food Industry’ 19 Population, Space and Place 459. Ben Rogaly (2008) ‘Intensification of Workplace Regimes in British Horticulture: The role of Migrant Workers’ 14 Population, Space and Place 497. doi: 10.1002/psp.502 Martin Ruhs and Bridget Anderson (2010) Who Needs Migrant Workers? Labour Storages, Immigration, and Public Policy, Oxford University Press. Roger Waldinger and Michael Lichter (2003) How the Other Half Works: Immigration and the Social Organization of Labor, University of California Press. Roger Waldinger and Michael Lichter (2003) How the Other Half Works: Immigration and the Social Organization of Labor, University of California Press. Joo-Cheong Tham, Iain Campbell and Martina Boese (2016) ‘Labour Protection of Temporary Migrant Workers’ in Howe and Owens’ Temporary Labour Migration in the Global Era. Joo-Cheong Tham, Iain Campbell and Martina Boese (2016) ‘Labour Protection of Temporary Migrant Workers’ in Howe and Owens’ Temporary Labour Migration in the Global Era. Martin Ruhs and Bridget Anderson (2010) Who Needs Migrant Workers? Labour Storages, Immigration, and Public Policy, Oxford University Press. Graeme Hugo (2014) ‘Skilled Migration in Australia: Policy and Practice’ 23 Asia and Pacific Migration Journal 375. doi: 10.1177/011719681402300404 Martin Ruhs and Bridget Anderson (2010) Who Needs Migrant Workers? Labour Storages, Immigration, and Public Policy, Oxford University Press. Philip Martin (2017) ‘Immigration Policy and Agriculture: Possible Directions for the Future’ 5 Journal on Migration and Human Security 252. doi: 10.1177/233150241700500202 Joanna Howe and Rosemary Owens (eds) (2016) Temporary Labour Migration in the Global Era: The Regulatory Challenges, Hart Publishing. Stephen Castles and Godula Kosack (1973) Immigrant Workers and Class Structure in Western Europe, Oxford University Press. Michael J Piore (1979) Birds of Passage: Migrant Labor and Industrial Societies, Cambridge University Press. Gary P Freeman (1995) ‘Modes of Immigration Politics in Liberal Democratic States’ 29 The International Migration Review 881. doi: 10.1177/019791839502900401 James F Hollifield (2004) ‘The Emerging Migration State’ 38 The International Migration Review 885. doi: 10.1111/j.1747-7379.2004.tb00223.x Chris F Wright (2012) ‘Immigration Policy and Market Institutions in Liberal Market Economies’ 43 Industrial Relations Journal 110. doi: 10.1111/j.1468-2338.2012.00664.x Stephen Clibborn and Chris F Wright (2018). Employer Theft of Temporary Migrant Workers’ Wages in Australia: Why has the State Failed to Act? Economic and Labour Relations Review, doi: 10.1177/1035304618765906 Chris F Wright and Stephen Clibborn (2017). ‘Back Door, Side Door, or Front Door: An Emerging De-Facto Low-Skilled Immigration Policy in Australia’ 39 Comparative Labor Law and Policy Journal 165. Neville Roach (1995) Business Temporary Entry – Future Directions (Committee of Inquiry into the Temporary Entry of Business People and Highly Skilled Specialists). House of Representatives Standing Committee on Employment, Workplace Relations and Workforce Participation (2007) ‘ Current Vacancies: Workforce Challenges Facing the Australian Tourism Sector’ (Parliament of the Commonwealth of Australia). Senate Standing Committee on Employment, Workplace Relations and Education (2006) ‘ Perspectives on the Future of the Harvest Labour Force’ (Commonwealth of Australia). Martin Ruhs and Bridget Anderson (2010) Who Needs Migrant Workers? Labour Storages, Immigration, and Public Policy, Oxford University Press. Joanna Howe et al (2017) ‘ Sustainable Solutions: The Future of Labour Supply in the Australian Vegetable Industry’ (Horticulture Innovation Australia). Joint Standing Committee on Migration (1997) Working Holiday Makers: More than Tourists (Australian Parliament House). Joint Standing Committee on Migration (1997) Working Holiday Makers: More than Tourists (Australian Parliament House). Stephanie Ware Barrientos (2013) ‘“Labour Chains”: Analysing the Role of Labour Contractors in Global Production Networks’ 49 Journal of Development Studies 1058. doi: 10.1080/00220388.2013.780040 Pamela K Robinson and Helen Rainbird (2013) ‘International Supply Chains and the Labour Process’ 17 Competition & Change 91. doi: 10.1179/1024529412Z.00000000027 Elyse T Watkins (2015) ‘Inhospitable Hosts: Fundamental Flaws in Recruitment Practices of H-2A Guest Workers and Recommendations for Change’ 8 Kentucky Journal of Equine, Agriculture & Natural Resources Law 467. Productivity Commission (2015) ‘Workplace Relations Framework: Productivity Commission Inquiry Report — Volume 2’ (Final Report No 76, Commonwealth of Australia, 30 November 2015). Elsa Underhill and Malcolm Rimmer (2016) ‘Layered Vulnerability: Temporary Migrants in Australian Horticulture’ 58 Journal of Industrial Relations 608. doi: 10.1177/0022185615600510 Elsa Underhill (2010) ‘Should Host Employers Have Greater Responsibility for Temporary Agency Workers’ Employment Rights?’ 48 Asia Pacific Journal of Human Resources 338. doi: 10.1177/1038411110382179 Joanna Howe et al (2017) ‘ Sustainable Solutions: The Future of Labour Supply in the Australian Vegetable Industry’ (Horticulture Innovation Australia). Manoj Dias-Abey (2018) ‘Justice on Our Fields: Can Alt-Labor Organizations Improve Migrant Farm Workers Conditions?’ 53 Harvard Civil Liberties Law Review 168. U N Bhati (1978) ‘An Analysis of Aggregate Labour Demand and Supply Relationships in Australian Agriculture’ 31 Quarterly Review of Agricultural Economics 106. R N Sexton (1976) ‘Labour Mobility in the Australian Rural Workforce’ 29 Quarterly Review of Agricultural Economics 112. Yan Tan and Laurence H Lester (2012) ‘Labour Market and Economic Impacts of International Working Holiday Temporary Migrants to Australia’ 18 Population, Space and Place 359. doi: 10.1002/psp.674 Joanna Howe et al (2017) ‘ Sustainable Solutions: The Future of Labour Supply in the Australian Vegetable Industry’ (Horticulture Innovation Australia). Haydn Valle, Niki Millist and David Galeano (2017) ‘ Labour Force Survey’ (Department of Agriculture and Water Resources). Graeme Hugo (2001) ‘ International Migration and Agricultural Labour in Australia’ (Paper prepared for Changing Face Workshop January 2001). Jayde Hanson and Martin Bell (2007) ‘Harvest Trails in Australia: Patterns of Seasonal Migration in the Fruit and Vegetable Industry’ 23 Journal of Rural Studies 101. doi: 10.1016/j.jrurstud.2006.05.001 Jayde Hanson and Martin Bell (2007) ‘Harvest Trails in Australia: Patterns of Seasonal Migration in the Fruit and Vegetable Industry’ 23 Journal of Rural Studies 101. doi: 10.1016/j.jrurstud.2006.05.001 Barry Brebner (1998) Workabout Australia, Workabout Australia. Jayde Hanson and Martin Bell (2007) ‘Harvest Trails in Australia: Patterns of Seasonal Migration in the Fruit and Vegetable Industry’ 23 Journal of Rural Studies 101. doi: 10.1016/j.jrurstud.2006.05.001 Department of Employment, Workplace Relations and Small Business (2000) ‘ Harvesting Australia: Report of the National Harvest Trail Working Group’. Jayde Hanson and Martin Bell (2007) ‘Harvest Trails in Australia: Patterns of Seasonal Migration in the Fruit and Vegetable Industry’ 23 Journal of Rural Studies 101. doi: 10.1016/j.jrurstud.2006.05.001 Alexander Reilly (2015) ‘Low-Cost Labour or Cultural Exchange? Reforming the Working Holiday Visa Programme’ 26 The Economic and Labour Relations Review 474. doi: 10.1177/1035304615598160 Graeme Hugo (2001) ‘ International Migration and Agricultural Labour in Australia’ (Paper prepared for Changing Face Workshop January 2001). Jill Murphy (1995) The Labour Market Effects of Working Holiday Makers (Bureau of Immigration, Multicultural, and Population Research). Glenn Withers and Robert Birrell (1991) ‘ The Working Holiday Maker Program: A Report by a Working Party of the National Population Council’ (Australian Government Publishing Service). Industry Commission (1993) Horticulture (Australian Government Publishing Service). Joint Standing Committee on Migration (1997) Working Holiday Makers: More than Tourists (Australian Parliament House). Joint Standing Committee on Migration (1997) Working Holiday Makers: More than Tourists (Australian Parliament House). Jill Murphy (1995) The Labour Market Effects of Working Holiday Makers (Bureau of Immigration, Multicultural, and Population Research). Jill Murphy (1995) The Labour Market Effects of Working Holiday Makers (Bureau of Immigration, Multicultural, and Population Research). Joint Standing Committee on Migration (1997) Working Holiday Makers: More than Tourists (Australian Parliament House). Joint Standing Committee on Migration (1997) Working Holiday Makers: More than Tourists (Australian Parliament House). Joint Standing Committee on Migration (1997) Working Holiday Makers: More than Tourists (Australian Parliament House). Joint Standing Committee on Migration (1997) Working Holiday Makers: More than Tourists (Australian Parliament House). Joint Standing Committee on Migration (1997) Working Holiday Makers: More than Tourists (Australian Parliament House). Joint Standing Committee on Migration (1997) Working Holiday Makers: More than Tourists (Australian Parliament House). Joint Standing Committee on Migration (1997) Working Holiday Makers: More than Tourists (Australian Parliament House). Joint Standing Committee on Migration (1997) Working Holiday Makers: More than Tourists (Australian Parliament House). Joint Standing Committee on Migration (1997) Working Holiday Makers: More than Tourists (Australian Parliament House). Joint Standing Committee on Migration (1997) Working Holiday Makers: More than Tourists (Australian Parliament House). Alexander Reilly (2015) ‘Low-Cost Labour or Cultural Exchange? Reforming the Working Holiday Visa Programme’ 26 The Economic and Labour Relations Review 474. doi: 10.1177/1035304615598160 United Working Holiday Makers in Australia (2015) ‘ Submission No DR94 to Productivity Commission’, Migrant Intake into Australia, December 2015. Department of Immigration and Border Protection (2016) ‘ Working Holiday Maker Visa Programme Report’, 30 June 2016. Department of Employment (2016) ‘ More Jobs. Great Workplaces. Annual Report 2015–16’. OECD (2015) International Migration Outlook 2015. Alexander Reilly (2015) ‘Low-Cost Labour or Cultural Exchange? Reforming the Working Holiday Visa Programme’ 26 The Economic and Labour Relations Review 474. doi: 10.1177/1035304615598160 Iain Campbell and Joo Cheong Tham (2013) ‘Labour Market Deregulation and Temporary Migrant Labour Schemes: An Analysis of the 457 Visa Program’ 26 Australian Journal of Labour Law 239. Shanti Robertson (2014) ‘Time and Temporary Migration: The Case of Temporary Graduate Workers and Working Holiday Makers in Australia’ 40 Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies 1915. doi: 10.1080/1369183X.2013.876896 Joint Standing Committee on Migration (1997) Working Holiday Makers: More than Tourists (Australian Parliament House). Glenys Harding and Elizabeth Webster (2002) ‘ The Working Holiday Maker Scheme and the Australian Labour Market’ (Melbourne Institute of Applied Economic and Social Research). Glenys Harding and Elizabeth Webster (2002) ‘ The Working Holiday Maker Scheme and the Australian Labour Market’ (Melbourne Institute of Applied Economic and Social Research). Glenys Harding and Elizabeth Webster (2002) ‘ The Working Holiday Maker Scheme and the Australian Labour Market’ (Melbourne Institute of Applied Economic and Social Research). Joint Standing Committee on Migration (1997) Working Holiday Makers: More than Tourists (Australian Parliament House). Jill Murphy (1995) The Labour Market Effects of Working Holiday Makers (Bureau of Immigration, Multicultural, and Population Research). Joanna Howe et al (2017) ‘ Sustainable Solutions: The Future of Labour Supply in the Australian Vegetable Industry’ (Horticulture Innovation Australia). Glenys Harding and Elizabeth Webster (2002) ‘ The Working Holiday Maker Scheme and the Australian Labour Market’ (Melbourne Institute of Applied Economic and Social Research). Yan Tan et al (2009) ‘ Evaluation of Australia’s Working Holiday Maker (WHM) Program’ (National Institute of Labour Studies, Flinders University). Yan Tan and Laurence H Lester (2012) ‘Labour Market and Economic Impacts of International Working Holiday Temporary Migrants to Australia’ 18 Population, Space and Place 359. doi: 10.1002/psp.674 Fair Work Ombudsman (2016) ‘ Inquiry into the Wages and Conditions of People Working under the 417 Working Holiday Visa Program’. Yan Tan et al (2009) ‘ Evaluation of Australia’s Working Holiday Maker (WHM) Program’ (National Institute of Labour Studies, Flinders University). Martin Ruhs and Bridget Anderson (2010) Who Needs Migrant Workers? Labour Storages, Immigration, and Public Policy, Oxford University Press. Omnipoll (2016) ‘Vegetable Grower Practices, Experiences and Views Concerning Employment of Seasonal Farm Labour’, Job Number 160820, August/September 2016. Omnipoll (2016) ‘Vegetable Grower Practices, Experiences and Views Concerning Employment of Seasonal Farm Labour’, Job Number 160820, August/September 2016. Joanna Howe et al (2017) ‘ Sustainable Solutions: The Future of Labour Supply in the Australian Vegetable Industry’ (Horticulture Innovation Australia). Joanna Howe et al (2017) ‘ Sustainable Solutions: The Future of Labour Supply in the Australian Vegetable Industry’ (Horticulture Innovation Australia). Joanna Howe et al (2017) ‘ Sustainable Solutions: The Future of Labour Supply in the Australian Vegetable Industry’ (Horticulture Innovation Australia). Joanna Howe et al (2017) ‘ Sustainable Solutions: The Future of Labour Supply in the Australian Vegetable Industry’ (Horticulture Innovation Australia). Joanna Howe et al (2017) ‘ Sustainable Solutions: The Future of Labour Supply in the Australian Vegetable Industry’ (Horticulture Innovation Australia). Joanna Howe et al (2017) ‘ Sustainable Solutions: The Future of Labour Supply in the Australian Vegetable Industry’ (Horticulture Innovation Australia). Joanna Howe et al (2017) ‘ Sustainable Solutions: The Future of Labour Supply in the Australian Vegetable Industry’ (Horticulture Innovation Australia). Joanna Howe et al (2017) ‘ Sustainable Solutions: The Future of Labour Supply in the Australian Vegetable Industry’ (Horticulture Innovation Australia). Joanna Howe et al (2017) ‘ Sustainable Solutions: The Future of Labour Supply in the Australian Vegetable Industry’ (Horticulture Innovation Australia). Joanna Howe et al (2017) ‘ Sustainable Solutions: The Future of Labour Supply in the Australian Vegetable Industry’ (Horticulture Innovation Australia). Joanna Howe et al (2017) ‘ Sustainable Solutions: The Future of Labour Supply in the Australian Vegetable Industry’ (Horticulture Innovation Australia). Omnipoll (2016) ‘Vegetable Grower Practices, Experiences and Views Concerning Employment of Seasonal Farm Labour’, Job Number 160820, August/September 2016. Alexander Reilly (2015) ‘Low-Cost Labour or Cultural Exchange? Reforming the Working Holiday Visa Programme’ 26 The Economic and Labour Relations Review 474. doi: 10.1177/1035304615598160 Fair Work Ombudsman (2016) ‘ Inquiry into the Wages and Conditions of People Working under the 417 Working Holiday Visa Program’. Fair Work Ombudsman (2016) ‘ Inquiry into the Wages and Conditions of People Working under the 417 Working Holiday Visa Program’. Joanna Howe et al (2017) ‘ Sustainable Solutions: The Future of Labour Supply in the Australian Vegetable Industry’ (Horticulture Innovation Australia). Fair Work Ombudsman (2016) ‘ Inquiry into the Wages and Conditions of People Working under the 417 Working Holiday Visa Program’. Australian Government (2016) ‘ Our North Our Future: White Paper on Developing Northern Australia’. Chris F Wright (2017) ‘Employer Organizations and Labour Immigration Policy in Australia and the United Kingdom: The Power of Political Salience and Social Institutional Legacies’ 55 British Journal of Industrial Relations 347. doi: 10.1111/bjir.12216 Chris F Wright (2017) ‘Employer Organizations and Labour Immigration Policy in Australia and the United Kingdom: The Power of Political Salience and Social Institutional Legacies’ 55 British Journal of Industrial Relations 347. doi: 10.1111/bjir.12216 Fair Work Ombudsman (2016) ‘ Inquiry into the Wages and Conditions of People Working under the 417 Working Holiday Visa Program’. Stuart Rosewarne (2010) ‘Globalisation and the Commodification of Labour: Temporary Labour Migration’ 20 The Economic and Labour Relations Review 99. doi: 10.1177/103530461002000207 Harald Bauder (2006) Labor Movement: How Migration Regulates Labor Markets, Oxford University Press. Yan Tan et al (2009) ‘ Evaluation of Australia’s Working Holiday Maker (WHM) Program’ (National Institute of Labour Studies, Flinders University). Joint Standing Committee on Migration (1997) Working Holiday Makers: More than Tourists (Australian Parliament House). Fair Work Ombudsman (2016) ‘ Inquiry into the Wages and Conditions of People Working under the 417 Working Holiday Visa Program’. Fair Work Ombudsman (2016) ‘ Inquiry into the Wages and Conditions of People Working under the 417 Working Holiday Visa Program’. Fair Work Ombudsman (2016) ‘ Inquiry into the Wages and Conditions of People Working under the 417 Working Holiday Visa Program’. Senate Standing Committee on Employment, Workplace Relations and Education (2006) ‘ Perspectives on the Future of the Harvest Labour Force’ (Commonwealth of Australia). Yan Tan et al (2009) ‘ Evaluation of Australia’s Working Holiday Maker (WHM) Program’ (National Institute of Labour Studies, Flinders University). Joanna Howe et al (2017) ‘ Sustainable Solutions: The Future of Labour Supply in the Australian Vegetable Industry’ (Horticulture Innovation Australia). Joanna Howe et al (2017) ‘ Sustainable Solutions: The Future of Labour Supply in the Australian Vegetable Industry’ (Horticulture Innovation Australia). Joanna Howe et al (2017) ‘ Sustainable Solutions: The Future of Labour Supply in the Australian Vegetable Industry’ (Horticulture Innovation Australia). Joanna Howe et al (2017) ‘ Sustainable Solutions: The Future of Labour Supply in the Australian Vegetable Industry’ (Horticulture Innovation Australia). Elsa Underhill and Malcolm Rimmer (2016) ‘Layered Vulnerability: Temporary Migrants in Australian Horticulture’ 58 Journal of Industrial Relations 608. doi: 10.1177/0022185615600510 Elsa Underhill and Malcolm Rimmer (2016) ‘Layered Vulnerability: Temporary Migrants in Australian Horticulture’ 58 Journal of Industrial Relations 608. doi: 10.1177/0022185615600510 Alexander Reilly (2015) ‘Low-Cost Labour or Cultural Exchange? Reforming the Working Holiday Visa Programme’ 26 The Economic and Labour Relations Review 474. doi: 10.1177/1035304615598160 Bob Birrell and Ernest Healy (2012) ‘ Immigration Overshoot’ (Centre for Population and Urban Research). Roger Waldinger and Michael Lichter (2003) How the Other Half Works: Immigration and the Social Organization of Labor, University of California Press. Joanna Howe et al (2017) ‘ Sustainable Solutions: The Future of Labour Supply in the Australian Vegetable Industry’ (Horticulture Innovation Australia). Joanna Howe et al (2017) ‘ Sustainable Solutions: The Future of Labour Supply in the Australian Vegetable Industry’ (Horticulture Innovation Australia). Omnipoll (2016) ‘Vegetable Grower Practices, Experiences and Views Concerning Employment of Seasonal Farm Labour’, Job Number 160820, August/September 2016. Joanna Howe et al (2017) ‘ Sustainable Solutions: The Future of Labour Supply in the Australian Vegetable Industry’ (Horticulture Innovation Australia). Joanna Howe et al (2017) ‘ Sustainable Solutions: The Future of Labour Supply in the Australian Vegetable Industry’ (Horticulture Innovation Australia). Martin Ruhs and Bridget Anderson (2010) Who Needs Migrant Workers? Labour Storages, Immigration, and Public Policy, Oxford University Press. Michael J Piore (1979) Birds of Passage: Migrant Labor and Industrial Societies, Cambridge University Press. ‘88 Days: A journey through dreams, hopes and thoughts of young Italians in Australia’ (2017) Matteo Maffesanti (Director), https://vimeo.com/131071052 ‘88 Days: A journey through dreams, hopes and thoughts of young Italians in Australia’ (2017) Matteo Maffesanti (Director), https://vimeo.com/131071052 Peter Mares (2016a) Not Quite Australian: How Temporary Migration is Unsettling the Settler Society, Text Publishing Co. Fidelma Breen (2017) ‘ Contemporary Irish Migration to Australia: Pathways to Permanence’ (PhD Thesis, The University of Adelaide). Joanna Howe et al (2017) ‘ Sustainable Solutions: The Future of Labour Supply in the Australian Vegetable Industry’ (Horticulture Innovation Australia). Joanna Howe et al (2017) ‘ Sustainable Solutions: The Future of Labour Supply in the Australian Vegetable Industry’ (Horticulture Innovation Australia). Joanna Howe et al (2017) ‘ Sustainable Solutions: The Future of Labour Supply in the Australian Vegetable Industry’ (Horticulture Innovation Australia). Manuel Castells (1975) ‘Immigrant Workers and Class Struggles in Advanced Capitalism: The Western European Experience’ 5 Politics & Society 33. doi: 10.1177/003232927500500102 Martin Ruhs and Bridget Anderson (2010) Who Needs Migrant Workers? Labour Storages, Immigration, and Public Policy, Oxford University Press. Joanna Howe et al (2017) ‘ Sustainable Solutions: The Future of Labour Supply in the Australian Vegetable Industry’ (Horticulture Innovation Australia). Elsa Underhill and Malcolm Rimmer (2016) ‘Layered Vulnerability: Temporary Migrants in Australian Horticulture’ 58 Journal of Industrial Relations 608. doi: 10.1177/0022185615600510 Elsa Underhill and Malcolm Rimmer (2016) ‘Layered Vulnerability: Temporary Migrants in Australian Horticulture’ 58 Journal of Industrial Relations 608. doi: 10.1177/0022185615600510 Stephen Howells (2011) ‘ Report of the 2010 Review of the Migration Amendment (Employer Sanctions) Act 2007’ (Minister for Immigration and Citizenship). Department of Immigration and Border Protection (2017) ‘ Annual Report 2016-17’. Elsa Underhill and Malcolm Rimmer (2016) ‘Layered Vulnerability: Temporary Migrants in Australian Horticulture’ 58 Journal of Industrial Relations 608. doi: 10.1177/0022185615600510 Department of Immigration and Border Protection (2017b) ‘ Visa Overstays for the Financial Year – Programme 1.2: Border Management’ (Budget Estimates Hearing, Question Taken on Notice). Robin Cohen (1987) The New Helots: Migrants in the International Division of Labour, Taylor & Francis Ltd. Patrick McGovern (2007) ‘Immigration, Labour Markets and Employment Relations: Problems and Prospects’ 45 British Journal of Industrial Relations 217. doi: 10.1111/j.1467-8543.2007.00612.x Murray Goot (2000) ‘More “Relaxed and Comfortable”: Public Opinion on Immigration under Howard’ 8 People and Place 46. Peter Dutton and Malcom Turnbull (2017) ‘Putting Australian Workers First’ (Joint Media Release, 18 April 2017) Bob Birrell and Ernest Healy (2012) ‘ Immigration Overshoot’ (Centre for Population and Urban Research). Harald Bauder (2006) Labor Movement: How Migration Regulates Labor Markets, Oxford University Press. Martin Ruhs (2013) The Price of Rights: Regulating International Labor Migration, Princeton University Press. James Walsh (2014) ‘From Nations of Immigrants to States of Transience: Temporary Migration in Canada and Australia’ 29 International Sociology 584. doi: 10.1177/0268580914538682 Peter Andree et al (eds) (2014) Globalization and Food Sovereignty: Global and Local Change in the New Politics of Food, University of Toronto Press. Christopher Barrett (ed) (2013) Food Security and Sociopolitical Stability, Oxford University Press. Department of Immigration and Border Protection (2017a) ‘ Fact Sheet One: Reforms to Australia’s Temporary Employer Sponsored Skilled Visa Program — Abolition and Replacement of the Subclass 457 Visa’. Additional information
Funding
This work was supported by Horticulture Australia (Horticulture Innovation Australia) under [grant number VG15025].