Travelling our way or no way!: the collision of automobilities in Australian Northern Territory judicial narratives

ABSTRACT

The regulation of driving and cars has taken on increasingly criminal guises. Apart from the role of insurance companies and motor vehicle registries, criminal law has stepped in to penalise drivers and car owners through more draconian measures. This article examines the problems that this presents for Indigenous drivers whose concepts of automobility are at odds with those of the nation state. It details the judicial narratives of this collision of automobilities in sentencing Indigenous drivers to argue that the Australian ‘settler state’ is continuing the practice of using mundane regulatory laws to dismantle and assimilate Indigenous communities.

KEYWORDS:

• Automobility and the law
• driving offending
• Indigenous legal relations
• criminal sentencing

Acknowledgements

We would like to thank participants of the Australian Criminal Law Workshop (Perth, University of Western Australia 2018) and the reviewer for their feedback.

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.

Notes on contributors

Dr Thalia Anthony, Associate Professor, Faculty of Law, University of Technology Sydney.

Dr Kieran Tranter, Associate Professor, Faculty of Law, Griffith University.

ORCID

Thalia Anthony http://orcid.org/0000-0002-0652-0731

Kieran Tranter http://orcid.org/0000-0003-1683-2939

Notes

1 Gillborn (2015), p 278.

2 Simon (1997), p 522; Tranter (2003), p 67; Tranter and Martin (2014), p 713; Guzik (2013), p 523; Doyle and Tranter (2017).

3 Urry (2004), p 25.

4 Butler (2008), p 470; Simon (1997); Guzik (2013); Tranter and Martin (2014), pp 713–715.

5 Tranter (2005); Emsley (1993), 357; Guzik (2013), pp 530–532.

6 Guzik (2013), p 526.

7 This autonomy in the car may be contrasted with constraints outside of the car. For example, women drivers express their autonomy in escaping from an oppressive domestic sphere or social landscape. See Garvey (2001), p 133.

8 Gartman (2004), pp 169,192.

9 Guzik (2013), pp 539–540.

10 Guzik (2013), pp 535–536.

11 Guzik (2013), pp 537–538.

12 Tranter (2014).

13 Tranter (2014), p 726.

14 Williams (2012); Carne (2013).

15 Australian Bureau of Statistics (2017a), p 6.

16 Australian Bureau of Statistics (2017a), p 32.

17 Taylor and Bell (2015).

18 ‘Country’ is a term used by Indigenous Australians to refer to their traditional or customary land and/or land that is seen by Indigenous people as belonging to them either without settler state recognition or with setter state recognition through mainstream land law or native title or statutory aboriginal land grants. See Fredrick (2011), pp 82–83; Sutton (1995).

19 Anthony (2004).

20 The history, legacy and continual manifestation of the colonialisation of the Northern Territory is detailed in section three below.

21 Mildren (2011).

22 The Court of Summary Jurisdiction presided over by magistrates was amalgamated with the previous civil Local Court to form a new Local Court by the Local Court Act 2015 (NT) s 84.

23 AusLII, http://www.austlii.edu.au/. Accessed 31 January 2018. On Austlii see Greenleaf et al (2011).

24 Supreme Court of the Northern Territory Decisions, http://www.supremecourt.nt.gov.au/decisions/. Accessed 31 January 2018.

25 Tranter and Kelly (2014), p 32; Wagstaff and Tranter (2014), p 172.

26 A list of these services can be found at Northern Territory Legal Aid Commission (2016).

27 For example on basis of looking at lawyers the driver in Choolum v Heath [2017] NTSC 41 was initially considered non-Indigenous, as he was not at the Supreme Court represented by an Aboriginal Legal Service. However, a closer examination of the text of the decision revealed that the driver was Indigenous, he was represented by an Aboriginal Legal Services at Local Court and, while not an exclusive illness to Indigenous people, he suffered from a renal condition and had as a previous address the predominately Indigenous community of Ti Tree. Choolum v Heath [2017] NTSC 41 Hiley J [25]. On renal disease in Northern Territory see Hoy (2014).

28 Murphy and Moodie (2016).

29 Anthony and Blagg (2012), 12.

30 Lalara v Malogorski [2012] NTSC 53 Mildren J [2].

31 Cincaid v Cahill [2009] NTSC 40 Olsson AJ [13].

32 Dixon v Mumu [2005] NTSC 55 Olsson AJ [14].

33 Marshall v Court [2013] NTSC 75 Mildren AJ [6].

34 Breadon v Nicholas [2010] NTSC 70 Mildren J [9].

35 Forrester v Nicholas [2012] NTSC 61; Keil v Westphal [2012] NTSC 11; Kilvington v Burgoyne [2005] NTSC 46; Davis v Howley [2003] NTSC 6.

36 McMahon v O’Neill [2015] NTSC 58 Hiley J [6].

37 Patterson v Balchin [2007] NTSC 19 Angel J [3].

38 Breadon v Nicholas [2010] NTSC 70 Mildren J [9].

39 Dixon v Mumu [2005] NTSC 55 Olsson AJ [17].

40 Henda v Cahill [2009] NTSC 63 Riley J [6].

41 Small v Nash [2001] NTSC 34 Thomas J [13].

42 Choolum v Heath [2017] NTSC 41 Hiley J [3, 5].

43 Thomas v Henderson [2001] NTSC 54 Martin CJ [5].

44 Carcuro v Norris [2007] NTSC 18 Southwood J [7].

45 Kelly v Winzar [2006] NTSC 59 Olsson J [10].

46 Lalara v Malogorski [2012] NTSC 53 Mildren J [4].

47 James v Burgoyne [2003] NTSC 52 Martin CJ [3].

48 Lynch v Dixon [2014] NTSC 45 Olsson AJ [12].

49 Garling v Firth [2016] NTSC 41 Hiley J [4].

50 Nadjulurru v Hales [2003] NTSC 11 Thomas J [33].

51 Morris v Heath [2017] NTSC 79 Mildren AJ [4–5].

52 Forrester v Nicholas [2012] NTSC 61 Blokland J [10].

53 McMahon v O’Neill [2015] NTSC 58 Hiley J [10].

54 Davis v Howley [2003] NTSC 6 Thomas J [15].

55 James v Burgoyne [2003] NTSC 52 Martin CJ [2].

56 Stotz (2001); Altman and Hinkson (2007), pp 181–203.

57 Myers (1989), pp 23–26; Stotz (2001), pp 233–239; MacDonald (2000), pp 87, 93–101; Gerrard (1989).

58 Altman and Hinkson (2007), p 195.

59 Until 2012 police officers in the Northern Territory worn khaki uniforms; this was changed in 2012 to be blue uniform similar in style and colour of the police forces from the States of Queensland and New South Wales Australian Broadcasting Corporation News (2011).

60 Marshall v Court [2013] NTSC 75 Mildren AJ [3].

61 Breadon v Nicholas [2010] NTSC 70 Mildren J [9].

62 Dixon v Mumu [2005] NTSC 55 Olsson AJ [17].

63 Tolson v Burgoyne [2003] NTSC 46 Martin CJ [6].

64 Small v Nash [2001] NTSC 34 Thomas J [5].

65 Morris v Heath [2017] NTSC 79, Mildren AJ [5].

66 Stotz (2001), p 234.

67 Dickson v Houseman & Dickson v Harland [2016] NTSC 28, Kelly J [9, 16].

68 Davis v Howley [2003] NTSC 6 Thomas J [12].

69 Kruger v Kidson [2004] NTSC 24 Mildren J [5].

70 Patterson v Balchin [2007] NTSC 19 Angel J [12].

71 Ivinson v Parsons [2011] NTSC 19 Blokland J [7]; Jongmin v Phipps [2014] NTSC 63 Barr J [2].

72 Ross v Toohey [2006] NTSC 92 Mildren J [12].

73 Glenn v Dixon [2005] NTSC 33 Riley J [7] quoting the sentencing magistrate.

74 Small v Nash [2001] NTSC 34 Thomas J [13] quoting the sentencing stipendiary magistrate.

75 Lynch v Dixon [2014] NTSC 45 Olsson AJ [26] quoting from the sentencing deputy chief magistrate.

76 Marshall v Court [2013] NTSC 75 Mildren AJ [4].

77 Jongmin v Phipps [2014] NTSC 63 Barr J [11] quoting the sentencing magistrate.

78 Dickson v Houseman & Dickson v Harland [2016] NTSC 28 Kelly J [6].

79 Lynch v Dixon [2014] NTSC 45 Olsson AJ [26] quoting from the sentencing deputy chief magistrate.

80 Wayne v Cornford [2013] NTSC 01 Kelly J [17].

81 McDonald v Cornford [2011] NTSC 109 Blokland J [9].

82 Lynch v Dixon [2014] NTSC 45 Olsson AJ [26] quoting from the sentencing deputy chief magistrate.

83 Cincaid v Cahill [2009] NTSC 40 Olsson AJ [32].

84 Choolum v Heath [2017] NTSC 41 Hiley J [28].

85 Marshall v Court [2013] NTSC 75 Mildren AJ [5] quoting Borchers SM.

86 Marshall v Court [2013] NTSC 75 Mildren AJ [20].

87 Justices of the Peace are non-salaried honorary position.

88 Cincaid v Cahill [2009] NTSC 40 Olsson AJ [21].

89 Henda v Cahill [2009] NTSC 63 Riley J [13].

90 Thomas v Henderson [2001] NTSC 54 Martin CJ [21] quoting the sentencing magistrate.

91 Carcuro v Norris [2007] NTSC 18 Southwood J [9] quoting the presiding magistrate.

92 Marshall v Court [2013] NTSC 75 Mildren AJ [17].

93 Morris v Heath [2017] NTSC 79 Mildren AJ quoting Judge Borchers.

94 Peach v Toohey [2003] NTSC 57.

95 Wayne v Cornford [2013] NTSC 01 Kelly [17]; Tolson v Burgoyne [2003] NTSC 46 Martin CJ [1].

96 Mick v Burgoyne [2006] NTSC 5 Southwood J [10].

97 Kilvington v Burgoyne [2005] NTSC 46 Riley J [9].

98 Henda v Cahill [2009] NTSC 63 Riley J [7] quoting sentencing magistrate.

99 Dickson v Houseman & Dickson v Harland [2016] NTSC 28 Kelly J [20] quoting Oliver SM.

100 The archive and technical tendency to archive is made possible by a desire for an outside of the subjective self that remembers. ‘There is no archive without a place of consignation, without technique of repetition, and without a certain exteriority. No archive without outside’. Derrida (1996), 11 (Italic in original).

101 Small v Nash [2001] NTSC 34 Thomas J [13] quoting the sentencing magistrate.

102 Lynch v Dixon [2014] NTSC 45 Olsson AJ [26] quoting from the sentencing deputy chief magistrate.

103 Marshall v Court [2013] NTSC 75 Mildren AJ [17, 20].

104 Crowson v Pryce [1995] NTSC 133 Thomas J [17].

105 James v Burgoyne [2003] NTSC 52 Martin CJ [5].

106 Kelly v Winzar [2006] NTSC 59 Olsson J [8].

107 Dixon v Mumu [2005] NTSC 55 Olsson AJ [24]. See also Sultan v Guerin [2016] NTSC 33 Blokland J [26].

108 Dickson v Houseman & Dickson v Harland [2016] NTSC 28, Kelly J [20] quoting Oliver SM.

109 Jongmin v Phipps [2014] NTSC 63 Barr J [30].

110 Keil v Westphal [2012] NTSC 11 Kelly J [4].

111 Forrester v Nicholas [2012] NTSC 6; Kruger v Kidson [2004] NTSC 24; Bielefeld v Winzar [2003] NTSC 109; Kilvington v Burgoyne [2005] NTSC 46; Sekubumba v Sims [2009] NTSC 64. This could be because the non-Indigenous driver did not have a past record, or it was not considered relevant for the traffic offences that were the subject of the appeal.

112 Davis v Howley [2003] NTSC 6 Thomas J [2].

113 McMahon v O’Neill [2015] NTSC 58 Hiley J [10–12].

114 Anthony and Blagg (2013).

115 Carcuro v Norris [2007] NTSC 18 Southwood J [9] quoting the presiding magistrate.

116 Abbott v Wilson [2017] NTSC 50, Hiley J [9] quoting the sentencing Youth Justice Court judge, italic added by Hiley J.

117 Burnham v Westphal [2012] NTSC 2 Southwood J [8] quoting the sentencing magistrate.

118 Jongmin v Phipps [2014] NTSC 63 Barr J [8].

119 Jongmin v Phipps [2014] NTSC 63 Barr J [27] quoting the sentencing magistrate.

120 Warlapinni v Cumming and Moore [2009] NTSC 39 Mildren J [11].

121 See for example Breadon v Nicholas [2010] NTSC 70 – 4 months imprisonment; Henda v Cahill [2009] NTSC 63 – 3 months imprisonment; Choolum v Heath [2017] NTSC 41 – 5 months; Jongmin v Phipps [2014] NTSC 63 – 3 months imprisonment; Ross v Toohey [2006] NTSC 92 – 3 months imprisonment suspended after 1 month; Wayne v Cornford [2013] NTSC 01 – 5 weeks imprisonment Warlapinni v Cumming and Moore [2009] NTSC 39 – 14 days imprisonment.

122 Only one non-Indigenous driver sentenced was initially sentenced to 4 months imprisonment but had it reduced to 14 days on appeal: McMahon v O’Neill [2015] NTSC 58 Hiley J [6].

123 Forrester v Nicholas [2012] NTSC 61; Sekubumba v Sims [2009] NTSC 64.

124 McMahon v O’Neill [2015] NTSC 58 Hiley J [7]; Bielefeld v Winzar [2003] NTSC 109 Mildren J [2].

125 Davis v Howley [2003] NTSC 6 Thomas J [15].

126 Crowson v Pryce [1995] NTSC 133 Thomas J [5].

127 Cincaid v Cahill [2009] NTSC 40 Olsson AJ [11]; Morris v Heath [2017] NTSC 79 Mildren AJ [5]; Crowson v Millar [2014] NTSC 61 Riley CJ [2].

128 O’Neill v Brumby [2016] NTSC 10 Kelly J [2].

129 Lalara v Malogorski [2012] NTSC 53 Mildren J [2]; Dixon v Mumu [2005] NTSC 55 Olsson AJ [14]; Breadon v Nicholas [2010] NTSC 70 Mildren J [8]; Kelly v Winzar [2006] NTSC 59 Olsson J [4]; Jongmin v Phipps [2014] NTSC 63 Barr J [2]; Andalong v O’Neill [2017] NTSC 77 Grant CJ, Southwood and Riley JJ [2].

130 Although in a few decisions the erratic or dangerous operation of the vehicle brought the driver to police attention. See for example Rigby v James [2004] NTSC 6 Mildren J [7].

131 Carcuro v Norris [2007] NTSC 18 Southwood J [4] the vehicle was observed in the evening with no working taillights. While several Indigenous drivers were convicted on driving an unsafe vehicle, identification of the disrepair of the vehicle only became obvious to the police once the vehicle was stopped on other grounds (for example Mick v Burgoyne [2006] NTSC 5 Southwood J [9–10]). There is immortalised in Australia a particular vision of a vehicle owned by Indigenous people in the Northern Territory. In 1992 the Australian Broadcast Corporation screened a Warlpiri Media Association production Bush Mechanics on national television. This humorous insight into Indigenous automobility showed the Warlpiri men driving, repairing and coping with highly dilapidated vehicles. The vehicles were patchwork machines created by the merging together of different cars; with the resultant vehicle functional but missing the windscreens, lights and some panels. Episodes showed highly innovative roadside repairs including the replacing of a broken front wheels and suspensions with a tree-branch outrigger. See Batty D (2001). Australian Broadcasting Corporation, first broadcasted 2 October 2001 Australia. On Bush Mechanics see Clarsen (2002). On the practice of bush mechanics and the resultant vehicles see Young (2011). Recent interviews with Warlpiri people has suggested a decline in the practice of bush mechanics, because of modern vehicle engineering and electronic components, Anthony and Blagg (2012), p 49.

132 Lamberth (2010); Lundman and Kaufman (2005), p 195; Harris (1999), p 265.

133 Clarsen (2010) has warned of universalising national automobilities to world-wide phenomena. This can equally be said about the regulatory responses that are embedded in place and history.

134 Anthony and Blagg (2013); Guzik (2013), p 526. Guzik recognises that this focus of state law in the Automobility and Law framework tends towards ‘juridical monism’. Guzik (2013), p 526.

135 See Pleshet (2006) for an overview of the history of the motorisation of Indigenious people in the Northern Territory.

136 Wagner (2006), p 311.

137 Frederick (2011), p 87.

138 Frederick (2011), p 89.

139 Anthony and Blagg (2013), p 48; Young (2001); Stotz (2001); Stotz (1993); Peterson (2000), p 205.

140 Guzik (2013); Tranter (2005).

141 Howard-Wagner and Kelly (2011), p 107.

142 Rowse (2002).

143 Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission (1997).

144 Tranter (2003), pp 76–77.

145 Cripps (2007), p 6.

146 Nicholson et al (2012).

147 Anthony (2009), p 90; Vivian and Schokman (2009), p 78; Macoun (2011), p 519.

148 Altman (2007).

149 Anthony and Blagg (2012).

150 Anthony and Blagg (2013).

151 Northern Territory National Emergency Response Act 2007 (Cth) s 17; Liquor Act 1979 (NT) s 95.

152 Police Administration Act 1978 (NT) s 7; Pilkington (2009), pp 55, 174.

153 Anthony and Blagg (2013), p 56.

154 The prison rate has increased by 65 per cent since 2006, faster than any other state or territory. It has the highest imprisonment rate (878 prisoners per 100,000 100,000 adults), and proportion of Indigenous prisoners (84 per cent). Australian Bureau of Statistics (2017b), table 14.

155 In 2005–06 the total reported traffic offences in the Northern Territory was 12,890. In 2016–17 it was 65,083. This is a 505 per cent increase. Northern Territory Police, Fire and Emergency Services (2006), p 158; Northern Territory Police, Fire and Emergency Services (2017), p 157. About 25 per cent of inmates in Northern Territory prisons are driving offenders and 99 per cent of these are Indigenous. McCarthy (2011).

156 Northern Territory Department of Corrective Services (2016), p 28 table 21. Indigenous traffic offenders was 295, total Indigenous offenders 3296.

157 Northern Territory Department of Corrective Services (2016), p 28 table 21. Indigenous driving licence and other traffic offences was 99 out of total of 295. The other 196 were for drink driving offences.

158 MacGillivray and Baldry (2015), p 4.

159 MacGillivray and Baldry (2015), p 4.

160 Cincaid v Cahill [2009] NTSC 40.

161 Breadon v Nicholas [2010] NTSC 70 Mildren J [2].

162 Bray et al (2014), xv; Farrell (2011), p 33.

163 Marshall v Court [2013] NTSC 75 Mildren AJ [17].

164 Brown (2006).

165 Henriss-Anderssen (2002), p 286.

166 Havermann (2005), p 57.

167 Young (2001); Young (2011).