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ABSTRACT
Coming more than 25 years after Mabo v Queensland [No 2] (1992) 175 CLR 1, the landmark decision in Northern Territory v Griffiths (‘Griffiths’) (2019) 269 CLR 1 is the first judicially determined award of compensation for both economic and non-economic, or cultural loss under the Native Title Act 1993 (Cth). Although some attention has been given to the economic loss component of the decision, very little has been written about the most important aspect of the decision, cultural loss, and what this aspect means for First Nations Australians in reality. This article examines the legal and practical implications of the decision in Griffiths as it pertains to cultural loss and in the broader context of colonialism, native title law and First Nations’ law. I argue that these implications demonstrate how compensation for cultural loss under the Native Title Act 1993 (Cth) perpetuates colonialism and will fail many First Nations Australians in properly compensating for the loss of connection to country.
Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author.
Notes
1 (2019) 269 CLR 1 (‘Griffiths’).
2 See, e.g. Wilson (Citation2019), p 36; Abraham and Isdale (21 March Citation2019).
3 (1992) 175 CLR 1 (‘Mabo [No 2]’).
4 Wilson (Citation2019); Brownhill and Peattie (Citation2019).
5 Griffiths (2019) 269 CLR 1 at [180], [187] (Kiefel CJ, Bell, Keane, Nettle and Gordon JJ).
6 Griffiths (2019) 269 CLR 1 at [165], [180] (Kiefel CJ, Bell, Keane, Nettle and Gordon JJ).
7 Griffiths (2019) 269 CLR 1 at [165], [180] (Kiefel CJ, Bell, Keane, Nettle and Gordon JJ).
8 Griffiths (2019) 269 CLR 1 at [219] (Kiefel CJ, Bell, Keane, Nettle and Gordon JJ).
9 Lois O’Donoghue ‘Something to Celebrate’ in Yunupingu (ed) (Citation1997), p 30.
10 Galarrwuy Yunupingu, ‘Rom Watangu’, in Williamson (ed) (Citation2016), p 158.
11 References to ‘State’ in this article include Territories.
12 Watson (Citation2015), p 11.
13 Watson and Douglas (eds) (Citation2021), p 8.
14 Mabo [No 2] (1992) 175 CLR 1 at 80 (Deane and Gaudron JJ).
15 Galarrwuy Yunupingu, ‘From Bark Petition to Native Title’ in Yunupingu (ed) (Citation1997), p 2.
16 Griffiths v Northern Territory [No 3] (2016) 337 ALR 362 at [352] (Mansfield J) (‘Griffiths FCA’).
17 Walter R Echo-Hawk, ‘Colonialism and Law in the Post-Colonial Era’ in Berg (ed) (Citation2010), p 154.
18 Watson (Citation2015), p 62.
19 Watson and Douglas (eds) (Citation2021), p 17.
20 The concept of ‘land rights’ is distinct from, and broader than, the concept of ‘native title’, which is limited to the form of title recognised under the common law and the administrative scheme of the NTA: Behrendt et al. (Citation2009), pp 184–186.
21 Reproduced in Moores (ed) (Citation1995), pp 70–71.
22 Flood (Citation2006), p 216.
23 Milirrpum v Nabalco Pty Ltd (1971) 17 FLR 141; Coe v Commonwealth (1979) 24 ALR 118.
24 Michael Dodson, ‘Land Rights and Social Justice’ in Yunupingu (ed) (Citation1997), p 44.
25 Young (Citation2019), p 850.
26 Griffiths (2019) 269 CLR 1 at [6] (Kiefel CJ, Bell, Keane, Nettle and Gordon JJ).
27 Native title was held to exist in an earlier determination: Griffiths v Northern Territory (2006) 165 FCR 300.
28 The trial judge used the term ‘solatium’ to describe this component, however the High Court considered that because ‘solatium’ is derived from land acquisition statutes this may distract from the purpose of this component of loss. Cultural loss is not to be understood as an additional amount to be added for pain and suffering or hurt feelings, but as an integral component of compensation for loss of connection to country under the NTA: Griffiths (2019) 269 CLR 1 at [53]–[54] (Kiefel CJ, Bell, Keane, Nettle and Gordon JJ).
29 Griffiths (2019) 269 CLR 1 at [154] (Kiefel CJ, Bell, Keane, Nettle and Gordon JJ).
30 Griffiths (2019) 269 CLR 1 at [223]–[227].
31 (2016) 337 ALR 362 (‘Griffiths FCA’).
32 Griffiths FCA (2016) 337 ALR 362 at [302].
33 Griffiths FCA (2016) 337 ALR 362 at [313].
34 Griffiths FCA (2016) 337 ALR 362 at [317]–[318].
35 Griffiths FCA (2016) 337 ALR 362 at [321].
36 Griffiths FCA (2016) 337 ALR 362 at [324].
37 Griffiths FCA (2016) 337 ALR 362 at [348].
38 Griffiths FCA (2016) 337 ALR 362 at [348].
39 Griffiths FCA (2016) 337 ALR 362 at [336].
40 Griffiths FCA (2016) 337 ALR 362 at [350].
41 Griffiths FCA (2016) 337 ALR 362 at [363].
42 Griffiths FCA (2016) 337 ALR 362 at [375].
43 Griffiths FCA (2016) 337 ALR 362 at [378]–[382].
44 (2017) 256 FCR 478 (‘Griffiths Full Court’).
45 Griffiths Full Court (2017) 256 FCR 478 at [464]–[466].
46 Griffiths Full Court (2017) 256 FCR 478 at [368].
47 Griffiths Full Court (2017) 256 FCR 478 at [412], [420].
48 Griffiths Full Court (2017) 256 FCR 478 at [396].
49 Griffiths (2019) 269 CLR 1 at [3] (Kiefel CJ, Bell, Keane, Nettle and Gordon JJ).
50 See, e.g. Cubillo (24 March Citation2019).
51 Nicholls and Nolan (Citation2019), pp 885–886.
52 Griffiths (2019) 269 CLR 1 at [3], [223]–[227] (Kiefel CJ, Bell, Keane, Nettle and Gordon JJ).
53 Griffiths (2019) 269 CLR 1 at [224] (Kiefel CJ, Bell, Keane, Nettle and Gordon JJ).
54 Griffiths (2019) 269 CLR 1 at [216] (Kiefel CJ, Bell, Keane, Nettle and Gordon JJ).
55 Griffiths (2019) 269 CLR 1 at [223]–[224] (Kiefel CJ, Bell, Keane, Nettle and Gordon JJ).
56 Griffiths (2019) 269 CLR 1 at [206] (Kiefel CJ, Bell, Keane, Nettle and Gordon JJ).
57 Cited in Watson (Citation1997), p 39.
58 Behrendt and Kelly (Citation2008), p 1.
59 Watson (Citation2015), p 37.
60 Fejo v Northern Territory (1998) 195 CLR 96 at [105] (Kirby J).
61 Native Title Act 1993 (Cth) s 223. See also Mabo [No 2] (1992) 175 CLR 1 at 57 (Brennan J).
62 (2002) 213 CLR 1.
63 Western Australia v Ward (2002) 213 CLR 1 at [64] (Gleeson CJ, Gaudron, Gummow and Hayne JJ).
64 Western Australia v Ward (2002) 213 CLR 1 at [20].
65 It is also a statutory requirement: Native Title Act 1993 (Cth) s 223(1)(b).
66 Griffiths (2019) 269 CLR 1 at [166] (Kiefel CJ, Bell, Keane, Nettle and Gordon JJ).
67 Members of the Yorta Yorta Aboriginal Community v Victoria [1998] FCA 1606 at [129].
68 Members of the Yorta Yorta Aboriginal Community v Victoria (2002) 214 CLR 422 at [50] (Gleeson CJ, Gummow and Hayne JJ).
69 See, e.g. Bodney v Bennell (2008) 167 FCR 84; Risk v Northern Territory (2007) 240 ALR 75; Sandy on behalf of the Yugara People v Queensland (2017) 254 FCR 107.
70 Watson and Douglas (eds) (Citation2021), p 8.
71 Watson (Citation2014), p 510.
72 Mabo [No 2] (1992) 175 CLR 1, at 63.
73 Noel Pearson, ‘The Concept of Native Title at Common Law’ in Yunupingu (ed) (Citation1997), p 155.
74 Watson (Citation2015), p 39.
75 Watson (Citation2015), p 42.
76 Yu (Citation1996), p 165.
77 Malbon (Citation2003), p 322.
78 Watson (Citation2002), p 266.
79 Native Title Act 1993 (Cth) s 11.
80 Native Title Act 1993 (Cth) Preamble.
81 Mabo [No 2] (1992) 175 CLR 1, at 63.
82 See generally, Western Australia v Commonwealth (1995) 183 CLR 373.
83 Quoted in Behrendt and Kelly (Citation2008), p 89.
84 Smith (Citation2001), p 7.
85 Native Title Act 1993 (Cth) ss 51(5)–(8).
86 Griffiths FCA (2016) 337 ALR 362 at [291].
87 McGrath (Citation2017), p 4.
88 Although jurisprudence in relation to this type of compensation is new, there is a degree of existing jurisprudence on other types of compensation, for example with respect to compensation in relation to mining activities under the Aboriginal Land Rights (Northern Territory) Act 1976 (NT): Altman and Pollack (Citation1998), p 1.
89 Angyal and Edgeworth (Citation2019), p 442.
90 Griffiths (2019) 269 CLR 1 at [217] (Kiefel CJ, Bell, Keane, Nettle and Gordon JJ).
91 As at 4 May 2022, search for compensation ‘application type’ conducted at: ‘Search Native Title Applications, Registration Decisions and Determinations’, National Native Title Tribunal (Web Page), http://www.nntt.gov.au/searchRegApps/NativeTitleClaims/Pages/default.aspx.
92 Moss and Isdale (Citation2019).
93 Griffiths Full Court (2017) 256 FCR 478 at [245].
94 Griffiths Full Court (2017) 256 FCR 478 at [245].
95 Health Insurance Commission v Peverill (1994) 179 CLR 226; Minister for Primary Industry & Energy v Davey (1993) 47 FCR 151.
96 (1997) 190 CLR 513.
97 Newcrest Mining (WA) Ltd v Commonwealth (1997) 190 CLR 513 at 613 (Gummow J).
98 Brennan (Citation2004).
99 Isdale (18 March Citation2020).
100 As at 4 May 2022: ‘Federal Law Search’, Commonwealth Courts Portal (Web Page), https://www.comcourts.gov.au/file/Federal/P/NTD43/2019/actions; ‘Federal Law Search’, Commonwealth Courts Portal (Web Page), https://www.comcourts.gov.au/file/Federal/P/NTD42/2019/actions.
101 Stone (Citation2020), p 12.
102 Martin (Citation2016), p 10.
103 Although areas to which s 47B of the NTA 1993 (Cth) applied were held on appeal to be exclusive rights and interests: Griffiths v Northern Territory (2007) 165 FCR 391.
104 Griffiths (2019) 269 CLR 1 at [3] (Kiefel CJ, Bell, Keane, Nettle and Gordon JJ).
105 Griffiths FCA (2016) 337 ALR 362 at [301].
106 Griffiths v Northern Territory (2007) 165 FCR 391 at [127] (French, Branson and Sundberg JJ).
107 Such as mining leases: Brown (on behalf of the Ngarla People) v Western Australia [No 2] (2010) 268 ALR 149; public rights of innocent passage: Yarmirr v Northern Territory [No 2] (1998) 82 FCR 533 at 592; and public rights of access: Western Australia v Manado (2020) 376 ALR 427.
108 Griffiths (2019) 269 CLR 1 at [216] (Kiefel CJ, Bell, Keane, Nettle and Gordon JJ).
109 Native Title Act 1993 (Cth) s 64(1).
110 Wharton on behalf of the Kooma People v Queensland [No 2] [2021] FCA 191 and Saunders on behalf of the Bigambul People v Queensland [No 2] [2021] FCA 190.
111 Saunders on behalf of the Bigambul People v Queensland [No 2] [2021] FCA 190 at [62], [74] (Rangiah J), citing Griffiths (2019) 269 CLR 1 at [43] and [46]; with the same reasoning applying in Wharton on behalf of the Kooma People v Queensland [No 2] [2021] FCA 191 at [16] (Rangiah J).
112 Flynn and Lawrence (Citation2021), p 3.
113 Native Title Act 1993 (Cth) s 61(5); Form 4 prescribed under the Native Title (Federal Court) Regulations 1998 (Cth): reg 5(1)(d).
114 Saunders on behalf of the Bigambul People v Queensland [No 2] [2021] FCA 190 at [149] (Rangiah J); Wharton on behalf of the Kooma People v Queensland [No 2] [2021] FCA 191 at [18]–[19] (Rangiah J).
115 For large claim areas, identifying tenure for the purpose of extinguishment can be a prolonged process: see, e.g. Croft on behalf of the Barngarla Native Title Claim Group v South Australia [No 2] [2016] FCA 724 at [3] (Mansfield J).
116 As at 4 May 2022: ‘Federal Law Search’, Commonwealth Courts Portal (Web Page), https://www.comcourts.gov.au/file/Federal/P/QUD106/2021/actions; ‘Federal Law Search’, Commonwealth Courts Portal (Web Page), https://www.comcourts.gov.au/file/Federal/P/QUD107/2021/actions.
117 Griffiths (2019) 269 CLR 1 at [217] (Kiefel CJ, Bell, Keane, Nettle and Gordon JJ).
118 Behrendt and Kelly (Citation2008), p 1.
119 Members of the Yorta Yorta Aboriginal Community v Victoria (2002) 214 CLR 422.
120 Simon Young, ‘Commentary: Members of the Yorta Yorta Aboriginal Community v Victoria (2002) 214 CLR 422’ in Watson and Douglas (eds) (Citation2021), p 95.
121 Behrendt et al. (Citation2009), p 204.
122 Jango v Northern Territory (2007) 59 FCR 531.
123 See, e.g. Starkey on behalf of the Kokatha People v South Australia (2018) 261 FCR 183.
124 Federal Court Rules 2011 (Cth) r 30.01.
125 Nicholls and Nolan (Citation2019), p 889.
126 Griffiths (2019) 269 CLR 1 at [217] (Kiefel CJ, Bell, Keane, Nettle and Gordon JJ).
127 Native Title Act 1993 (Cth) s 86.
128 Griffiths (2019) 269 CLR 1 at [155], [216] (Kiefel CJ, Bell, Keane, Nettle and Gordon JJ).
129 See Hannath (Citation2019).
130 McGrath (Citation2017), p 4.
131 McGrath (Citation2017), p 4.
132 Griffiths (2019) 269 CLR 1 at [46] (Kiefel CJ, Bell, Keane, Nettle and Gordon JJ).
133 Griffiths Full Court (2017) 256 FCR 478 at [379]-[396].
134 Griffiths FCA (2016) 337 ALR 362 at [302] (Mansfield J).
135 Edelman J believed that $1.3 million was ‘a reasonable, indeed a conservative, award’, which may strengthen arguments for greater compensation awards in future claims: Griffiths (2019) 269 CLR 1 at [328].
136 See Lovett on behalf of the Gunditjmara People v Victoria [2007] FCA 474 at [37].
137 Ritter (Citation2009), p 74.
138 Taylor on behalf of the Yamatji Nation Claim v Western Australia [2020] FCA 42 at [35]–[37] (Mortimer J); Turner on behalf of the Nukunu People v South Australia [2019] FCA 863, orders paragraph 2 (Charlesworth J).
139 Ritter (Citation2009), p 175.
140 Howard-Wagner and Maguire (Citation2010), p 83; see also Davis and Williams (Citation2021), p 165.
141 Native Title Act 1993 (Cth) Preamble.
142 As has been called for in the Uluru Statement from the Heart.
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Notes on contributors
Michael Raine
Michael Raine was awarded a Bachelor of Laws and Legal Practice (First Class Honours) in 2021. Michael is a ‘settler scholar’ with a particular interest in native title and his Honours dissertation was on the first native title compensation made by the High Court in 2019 (Northern Territory v Griffiths (2019) 269 CLR 1). Michael’s dissertation argued that the legal and practical implication of the decision demonstrate how compensation for cultural loss under the Native Title Act 1993 (Cth) perpetuates colonialism and will fail many First Nations Australians in properly compensating for the loss of connection to country. Michael is currently studying a Master of Laws at Melbourne University.