Microextraction Techniques for Sample Preparation of Amphetamines in Urine: A Comprehensive Review

Abstract

Psychological disorders and dramatic social problems are serious concerns regarding the abuse of amphetamine and its stimulant derivatives worldwide. Consumers of such drugs experience great euphoria along with serious health problems. Determination and quantification of amphetamine-type stimulants are indispensable skills for clinical and forensic laboratories. Analysis of low drug doses in bio-matrices necessitates applications of simple and also effective preparation steps. The preparation procedures not only eliminate adverse matrix effects, but also provide reasonable clean-up and pre-concentration benefits. The current review presents different methods used for sample preparation of amphetamines from urine as the most frequently used biological matrix. The advantages and limitations of various sample preparation methods were discussed focusing on the miniaturized methods.

Keywords:

• Abused drugs
• amphetamines
• sample preparation
• liquid-based microextraction
• solid-based microextraction
• urine

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.

Additional information

Funding

PhD student research grant (Grant number 66097) was received from Tabriz University of Medical Sciences. The authors kindly thank Faculty of Pharmacy of Tabriz University of Medical Science and Biotechnology Research Center of Tabriz University of Medical Science for financial supporting under PhD thesis grant awarded to Nasim Nourani (Grant number 66097).