Stress and Coping: A Study of World Class Coaches

Abstract

This study explored coaches’ responses to stress, the perceived effects of stress, and the coping strategies coaches employed. Transcribed interviews with 12 world class coaches, based in the UK, were inductively content analyzed. A range of themes emerged describing coaches’ responses to stressors and the effects of stress. Specifically, coaches discussed psychological reactions, and suggested that their negative responses to stress could be projected onto their athletes. While structuring and planning was reported as a coping strategy, coaches described a limited use of psychological skills and tended to avoid stressors that provoked strain responses in efforts to manage stress. Results suggest that coaches should be aware of how they respond to stressors and the influence their responses might have on their athletes. Sport psychologists should help coaches to identify and develop the psychological skills and strategies required to cope with the demands of world class coaching.

This paper presents the second in a series of studies examining stress within the unique culture of world class sports coaching. Study 1 (Olusoga, Butt, Hays, & Maynard, 2009) identified a wide range of demands (i.e., stressors) that coaches encounter in a world class coaching environment. As identified by this first study, the stressors described by coaches can often be experienced in combination rather than as separate demands that occur one at a time. For example, athletes underperforming in competition, a lack of coach control, and pressure from a governing body to produce results, might all be experienced simultaneously against a backdrop of poor team management and conflict between staff. From a transactional stress perspective (Lazarus & Launier, 1978), these demands are part of a dynamic and complex stress process. Stress responses (i.e., strain) result from a perceived imbalance between environmental demands and an individual's coping resources and, as such, the responses to a combination of stressors, and the coping efforts of coaches, are likely to be complex. Indeed, coping is defined as “constantly changing cognitive and behavioral efforts to manage specific external and/or internal demands that are appraised as taxing or exceeding the resources of the person” (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984, p. 141), thus further demonstrating the inherent complexity of the stress process (Fletcher, Hanton, & Mellalieu, 2006).

According to UK Sport, coaching is a critical element of the high performance system and plays a central role in ensuring the ongoing success of athletes. In 2004, UK Sport began investing £1 million per year into an Elite Coach program with the aim of producing 60 elite British coaches by 2012. This substantial investment highlights the importance attached to producing and developing world class coaches in the United Kingdom. This growing importance afforded to coaching is reflected in an increase in the amount of sport psychology research dedicated to the topic (e.g., Erickson, Côté, & Fraser-Thomas, 2007; Frey, 2007; Levy, Nicholls, Marchant, & Polman, 2009; Olusoga et al., 2009; Thelwell, Weston, Greenlees, & Hutchings, 2008a; 2008b). For example, the importance of the relationship between coach and athlete has been commented upon by a number of authors (e.g., Baker, Yardley, & Côté, 2003; Lyle, 1999), and coaches have been identified as having a significant impact on athletes’ satisfaction and performance accomplishments (Jowett & Cockerill, 2003). While it is clear coaches have not been entirely ignored from a research perspective, it is only relatively recently that they have been considered performers in their own right (c.f., Gould, Guinan, Greenleaf, & Chung, 2002). Olusoga et al. (2009) and Thelwell et al. (2008b) have both explored the stressors experienced by elite coaches in the UK. Although similar stressors relating to athletes (e.g., coachability, professionalism) and coaches (competition preparation), as well as organizational issues (e.g., conflict, administration) were reported in both studies, there is still a need to further understand the impact of stressors. However, while elite athletes’ experiences of stress continues to receive significant research attention (e.g., Kristiansen & Roberts, 2009; McKay, Niven, Lavallee, & White, 2008; Mellalieu, Neil, Hanton, & Fletcher, 2009; Weston, Thelwell, Bond, & Hutchings, 2009), studies of coaching stress have only recently become more prolific.

To date, research that has investigated coaches’ responses to stress has provided some insight into the relationships between stress and coaches’ health, and this line of research has typically concentrated on burnout (see Goodger, Gorley, Lavallee, & Harwood, 2007, for a review). For example, it has been well documented that burnout, “a syndrome of emotional exhaustion, depersonalization, and reduced personal accomplishment” (Maslach & Jackson 1986, p. 1), is a possible response to chronic stress or a persistent imbalance between demands and coping resources (Smith, 1986). Although sociological (Coakley, 1992) and commitment-based (Schmidt & Stein, 1991) explanations for burnout have been posited, Smith's stress-based explanation was central to studies of coach burnout (e.g., Kelley, 1994; Kelley & Gill, 1993). Indeed, Kelley and Gill (1993) found support for Smith's cognitive-affective model of stress, with their results indicating that perceived stress was positively related to burnout. While the research into stress responses, and indeed the impact of stress, has primarily focused on burnout, other, more immediate stress responses have been under researched. Furthermore, coaches have reported several positive responses and effects of stress, including heightened awareness, energizing effects, and increased motivation (Frey, 2007). Taken together, these findings, and those of previous research, suggest that coaches’ responses to stressors can certainly vary and, thus, require greater research attention.

While it is important to note that individuals can respond to stressors in a positive manner, negative responses are reported more often (c.f., Frey, 2007). In a study of collegiate coaches in the United States, Frey (2007) reported that several factors, such as wanting more free time, consistent losing, and interference with family life, might result in them being more likely to withdraw from the profession altogether. Moreover, coaches felt that their moods, emotions, thoughts, and behaviors could be negatively affected by stressors, and that these responses to stressors could have a negative impact upon their athletes. McCann (1997) suggested that it was easy for athletes to recognize when their coaches were experiencing strain, and that this might have a detrimental influence on athletes’ confidence. Based on the extant literature, it is clear that stressors can have a negative impact, not only on the coaches encountering them but also, indirectly, on their athletes. Nicholls and Polman (2007) suggested that performers must be able to cope with stressors to perform well and “to make sport a satisfying experience” (p. 11). Although referring to athletes, this observation certainly applies to coaches too. Yet, as identified by Frey (2007), the ways in which coaches manage stress is still relatively unknown.

In studies with athlete populations, an inability to effectively cope with stressors has been linked to reduced quality of performance (Lazarus, 2000) and withdrawal from sport (Smith, 1986), and there is no reason to suggest that the same outcomes would not extend to coaching populations. It is therefore increasingly important to develop our understanding of coaches’ coping strategies. To address this, Levy et al. (2009), conducted a longitudinal study examining organizational stressors, coping strategies, and coping effectiveness with an elite coach. Administration (18.9% of all stressors reported), overload (12.9%) and athletes (8.6%) were the most frequent stressors cited and diary entries revealed 70 coping strategies used over a 28-day period. While this study attempted to explore the coach's perceptions of coping effectiveness, the ways in which the coach responded to stressors and the perceived effects of stress, were not explored. In a recent qualitative investigation, Thelwell et al. (2008a) explored the use of psychological skills in 13 elite-level coaches from the UK, finding that coaches employed goal-setting, imagery, self-talk, and relaxation skills across a range of situations. While Thelwell et al. demonstrated that world class coaches appear to use a variety of psychological skills, albeit in a somewhat limited fashion, the specific strategies used to cope with the demands of coaching within the unique culture of world class sport still warrant further investigation.

While stress research has focused on identifying the vast array of stressors encountered by elite performers, little research has explored coaches’ responses to stress and the perceived effects of stress. Instead, studies have tended to highlight the frequency with which various stressors are encountered. While emotional responses such as anxiety and anger are common (Lazarus, 2006), stress responses are not necessarily negative in tone or outcome. To date, although studies have explored the coping strategies of athletes (c.f. Nicholls & Polman, 2007), coping research with coaching populations has been less prolific. Frey (2007) explored the coping strategies of collegiate level coaches, and Levy et al. (2009) explored coping and coping effectiveness of one elite coach over a 28-day period. Although the first study in this series identified the stressors encountered by world class coaches, an exploration of coaches’ responses to stress, the effects of stress as perceived by these coaches, and the coping strategies they use is vital in developing our understanding of their overall stress experiences. Therefore, the purpose of the present study was twofold; first, to investigate the responses and effects of stress for world class UK sports coaches, and second, to explore the coping strategies used by these coaches attempting to manage stress.

METHOD

Participants

With institutional ethics approval, 12 sports coaches (6 men, 6 women) aged between 36 and 64 years (47.3 ± 7.6 years) participated voluntarily in the study. Coaches represented eight sports (diving, sailing, swimming, bowls, equestrianism, field hockey, lacrosse, and table tennis) and had between 6 and 22 years (14.5 ± 5.5 years) experience coaching at a world class level. Coaches were purposefully selected (Patton, 2002) from a variety of sports to ensure that a wide range of sporting organizations was represented. As part of the selection criteria, coaches were considered world class if they had coached at an Olympic games, world championships, world cup, and/or Commonwealth games. At the time of interview, seven coaches were in preparation for the 2008 summer Olympics in Beijing, one was in preparation for their world championships, one coach had just returned from a world cup, and two coaches were in the middle of a four-year world cup cycle. Due to the constraints associated with accessing a world class coaching sample, the data for the present study, and a previous publication (Olusoga et al., 2009) were collected in one interview. However, two themed interview guides delineated the aims of each separate study.

Procedure

Coaches were contacted via email and invited to participate in the study. Participants were assured that their comments would remain anonymous and that the interview data would be treated confidentially. An initial interview guide was pilot-tested with three coaches (2 male, 1 female) from three sports (swimming, field hockey, and basketball). This process allowed the principal investigator to ensure that the questions asked were unambiguous and the structure of the interview was clear. Feedback on the pilot interviews was provided by an experienced qualitative researcher who listened to the audio recordings and reviewed the transcripts. Several minor changes were subsequently made to the interview guide to enhance clarity. All interviews were conducted by the principal investigator who had extensive experience with interview-based research. In addition, the interviewer had more than 10 years of coaching experience which helped in establishing rapport with participants. As the interviewer was an experienced coach, a bracketing interview served to minimize the chance that any biases and preconceptions he may have had regarding coaches’ stressful experiences could influence the subsequent interviews and his interpretations of the coaches’ comments (Ely, 1991; Patton, 2002).

Interview Guide

Based on the existing stress literature (e.g., Frey, 2007; Thelwell et al., 2008b), use of a semi-structured interview guide ¹ ensured each participant was asked the same set of major questions (Gould, Finch, & Jackson, 1993). Specifically, following introductory questions designed to facilitate recall and encourage descriptive talking (Patton, 2002), the interview guide focused on four broad categories: responses to stressors, perceived effects of stress, coping strategies, and positive experiences of stress. However, as participants were encouraged to elaborate during the interview, the interviewer was free to explore issues unique to each coach's experiences in greater depth as they arose (Patton, 2002).

Data Analysis

Interviews were approximately 60 minutes in length (53 ± 13.6), and each was tape recorded and transcribed verbatim by the first author. To ensure data trustworthiness, transcripts of each interview were content analyzed by three researchers, using procedures recommended by Miles and Huberman (1994) and used within sport psychology research by several authors (e.g., Edwards, Hardy, Kingston, & Gould, 2002). Two researchers individually coded raw-data themes (i.e., quotes or paraphrased quotes representing a meaningful point or thought) characterizing each coach's responses to the interview questions (Côté, Salmela, Baria, & Russel, 1993). The raw-data themes were then organized into groups of like responses and common themes of greater generality, resulting in the emergence of lower- and higher-order themes. The two researchers reached consensus through discussion over a 4-week period. Disagreements between the researchers resulted in transcripts being re-read and further discussion taking place until consensus was reached (Sparkes, 1998). Triangular consensus was reached at each stage of analysis. Specifically, a third researcher was given a random selection of raw-data responses (30%) and asked to categorize them into their lower- and higher-order themes. This researcher categorized 90% of the quotes into their lower-order themes and 93% into their higher-order themes. Consensus was reached on all themes through further meetings with the research team.

RESULTS

The results are presented in two sections: The data pertaining to responses and effects of stress are presented first, followed by coaches’ coping strategies.

Responses and Effects of Stress

Twenty-five raw-data themes were identified from the interview transcripts, each representing a distinct response to stress. These were organized into the following three higher-order themes: psychological responses, behavioral responses, and physical responses. Analysis of the transcripts also resulted in 52 raw-data themes representing coaches’ perceived effects of stress being identified. These were organized into nine lower-order themes and, subsequently, into the following three higher-order themes: negative effects on the coach, effects on athletes, and positive effects. All higher-order themes representing responses and effects of stress are discussed in detail below and presented in Figure 1, with the number of coaches reporting each raw-data theme in parentheses. In addition, the numbers of coaches cited in each lower- and higher-order theme are included. Furthermore, to allow the reader to gain an understanding of the context of the data, the findings are presented using thick descriptive quotes (McKenna & Mutrie, 2003).

Figure 1 Responses and effects of stress reported by World class, UK sports coaches.

Psychological Responses

This higher-order theme encapsulated responses from all twelve coaches who described their psychological responses to stress. This theme consisted of three lower-order themes: emotional responses (e.g., anger, frustration, upset), negative cognitions (e.g., self-doubts, negative decision making), and reduced confidence. One of the most cited lower-order themes to emerge was emotional responses. In this theme, coaches discussed a range of emotions experienced in response to stressors, the most common being anger. Coaches also discussed feeling frustrated and annoyed, and, as one coach explained, it was common to experience a full range of emotions:

We had a staff meeting straight after that match, you know, everybody called into the office, and my blood was boiling. I mean, I was frustrated, I was kinda upset, disappointed, angry at the player, you know, all these emotions.

Behavioral Responses

As well as psychological responses, six coaches described several behavioral responses to the stressors they encountered while coaching. Coaches referred to behaviors such as pacing, “looking at my watch repeatedly,” and breaking down in tears. In addition, four coaches felt their body language became demonstratively more negative. As one coach explained, “the minute I seem angry, agitated, or actually negative, that would be a big sign. I’m not very good at being negative. … I’d say the body language would have shown.”

Physical Responses

This higher-order theme, consisting of five raw-data themes, described how coaches were physically affected by the stress they were experiencing. Four coaches reported somatic symptoms such as increased heart rate and feeling physically sick. As one coach described, “I would say that if you had a heart rate monitor on me as [the athletes] compete, I would probably be up around 200.”

Negative Effects on the Coach

Eleven of the coaches described the negative effects that they perceived stress had on them. Specifically, in this theme, coaches described what amounted to longer-term effects of stress, as opposed to the more immediate responses outlined in the previous theme of psychological responses. Twenty-six raw-data themes were organized into the following four lower-order themes: negative affect (e.g., depression, emotional fatigue), decreased motivation (e.g., wishing it was over, wanting to give up coaching), relationships with others (e.g., avoiding certain people, easy to be short with people), and withdrawal (e.g., becoming more introspective, becoming quieter). The most cited lower-order theme was negative affect in which coaches described how they became depressed, emotionally fatigued, and “felt bad about life” because of their experiences of stress. As one coach explained:

I found it very difficult to cope and I ended up a bit depressed really a. … That was really tough. It was very hard for friends at home to understand that I needed to talk to someone. That was a very tough time.

Decreased motivation was another lower-order theme that emerged. In this theme, one coach recalled “wishing it was over” when coaching at a particular event, while several coaches indicated that they questioned their motivation to continue coaching because of the stressors they experienced. As one coach stated, “I still loved [names sport], I still felt I had a lot to give within that role, but one year of doing it like that [family unhappy with time spent away from home], I wasn't coping with it.” In another lower-order theme, relationships with others, several coaches suggested that relationships outside work could suffer. For example, one coach discussed feeling de-motivated at work and with their family as a result of stress, while another reported that, “even when you’re at home … knowing the situation in the job, it was probably the worst six to twelve months of my life.”

Effects on Athletes

Seven coaches perceived their responses to stressors influenced their athletes, as evidenced by the responses in this higher-order theme. Fifteen raw-data themes were organized into two lower-order themes: behavior towards athletes (e.g., anger directed at athletes, less contact time with athletes, less time for feedback) and effects on athletes (e.g., athletes losing confidence, athletes getting angry/annoyed, athletes’ performances affected). The lower-order theme, behavior towards athletes, characterized how coaches felt their behavior changed when they were experiencing stress. For example, coaches discussed becoming “too directive” when coaching and being “short with athletes.” In explaining how such changes in behavior influenced athletes, one coach suggested that he was not getting the best out of his athletes and that instructions to athletes might get lost. One coach described how he felt his athletes suffered as his own standard of work dropped:

I wasn't watching for the things I needed to watch for. … It wasn't a conscious thing that I didn't wanna work, it was just that I knew I wasn't as concentrated … and I wasn't producing as good work as I would normally.

Positive Effects

Although coaches mainly discussed negative responses to stress, 7 of the 12 coaches interviewed felt that in certain situations, stress could result in positive responses. Specifically, 11 raw-data themes were identified and categorized into three lower-order themes: increased focus (e.g., concentrates the mind, helps focus preparation, “more alert to what's going on”), productivity (e.g., leads to discussion, clarity and decision-making), and determination (e.g., more determined to succeed). One coach described becoming more determined to succeed when experiencing stress as “being pushed to that sort of limit when you say, ‘ah to hell with it, of course I can do it,’ and then you’re away.” Importantly, coaches described the reflection needed to see stress in a positive light. This reflection was explained by one coach, who said:

You learn from the stress, yeah … if you can cope with it, learn from it and move on. … I just think it's in the environment and it's an essential part of the environment because I think it's where most of our learning curves actually take place. … And I think sometimes the coaches that actually get there in the end are the ones that get knocked down and get back up again.

Coping With Stress

Ninety-eight raw-data themes representing distinct coping strategies were identified and organized into 19 lower-order themes. These were then organized into the following nine higher-order themes: structuring and planning, psychological skills, support, distraction, experience and learning, approach to coaching, maintaining positive coach-athlete relationships, avoidance, and confrontation. These higher-order themes are discussed in detail below. All themes are presented in Figure 2.

Figure 2 Coping strategies employed by World class, UK sports coaches.

Structuring and Planning

As a way of coping with the stressors associated with a world class coaching environment, detailed structuring and advanced planning were reported by 10 of the 12 coaches. Specifically, this higher-order theme consisted of four lower-order themes in which coaches reported strategies involving planning (e.g., using time productively, allowing enough time so you’re not rushing), communication (e.g., identifying roles and responsibilities early, detailed needs analysis with athletes), effective time management (e.g., multi-tasking, dealing with tasks straight away), and taking scheduled time off from coaching (e.g., holidays, taking time off after championships). In the lower-order theme of planning, coaches described how they would plan for competitions (pre-game strategies) and for specific situations that might arise. Indeed, as one coach explained, planning in advance was a way of avoiding situations that coaches knew would be stressful:

I’m just sort of getting the hang of it now … organizing my life a bit better, a bit more in advance. I did turn round to my [spouse] in the beginning and say, “oh, I’m going away next week for two weeks.” So you could see how that would upset someone. … So now it's all done a bit more in advance.

Communication also emerged as a lower-order theme. Coaches suggested that communication with athletes and other staff was a strategy for coping with stressors. Again, rather than coping with stress as it occurred, several coaches explained that identifying roles and responsibilities early, and having clear boundaries and rules, were ways in which they reduced the potential for stressors to result in strain and negative responses. One coach explained how “telling players exactly what's expected of them” was a coping strategy for her.

Psychological Skills

Ten of the 12 coaches interviewed discussed using some form of psychological skills to help them cope with the stress of coaching. Specifically, 14 raw-data themes were categorized into four lower-order themes: rationalization (e.g., not taking it too seriously, trying to view stress as a learning experience), self-talk (e.g., reminders of motivation, self-affirmations), proactive behaviors (e.g., masking stress, controlling the controllables), and relaxation (visualization). Pro-active behaviors comprised raw-data themes relating to coaches’ active psychological efforts to cope with stress. One coach explained that keeping an emergency diary was a proactive form of coping that worked for her, as it allowed her to “get everything off [her] chest without a reaction.” Two coaches suggested that they would “mask” or hide their stress from their athletes so that the athletes would remain unaffected by the coaches’ stress, while another explained how projecting an air of confidence was a coping strategy they used: “You put on this false sort of impression because you have to. You learn to project this confident image. … You've gotta be the person who knows what they’re doing, who's in control, and who's making the decisions.”

Support

Nine coaches described support from several different sources, which they used to cope with stress. Specifically, three lower-order themes characterized these sources of support: work-related support (e.g., group of people to support you, using other coaches to help with coaching duties), advice from others (e.g., speaking to experiences coaches, working with the team psychologist), and social support (e.g., spending quality time with family, talking with friends). One of the most cited lower-order themes was work-related support. Five raw-data themes comprised this lower-order theme, in which coaches explained how having a group of people to support them and keeping an honest and open relationship with the management team helped them to cope. One coach suggested that “it's more than likely that you've got a couple of good management people with you that you kind of bounce [stress] off by discussing it and that's a way of relieving it.” In the lower-order theme of social support, one coach explained the importance of friendships outside the sporting arena, stating that she “would never have those critical friends in the environment,” and that she looked for support from “a close friend who played the sport but is not involved in the environment anymore.”

Distraction

Sixteen raw-data themes constituted this higher-order theme in which eight coaches described how engaging in activities away from the stressful environment could help them to cope with the demands of coaching. These responses were organized into two lower-order themes: off-task activities (e.g., time on my own, having a glass of wine and a cigar, going for a walk) and exercise (e.g., going running, playing golf). Eight of the twelve coaches interviewed mentioned that off-task activities, such as “having a beer now and again,” watching television, reading, and “enjoying lunch with friends,” helped them to cope with stress. As one coach commented:

I do give myself down periods. … I do try to take an evening a week where I sit down and I have a nice glass of wine and I smoke a cigar and I let my brain not think about anything … then I do feel that I am better for it.

Other coaches discussed habits such as drinking coffee or taking a shower as being a comforting distraction and a coping strategy for them. Having time on their own also appeared to help coaches cope with the demands of the job. As one coach stated, “I find it useful to have space for myself. … I like to get a quarter of an hour, 20 minutes to myself at some point during the day, just to put things back into order.”

Experience and Learning

Nine raw-data themes related to how coaches used their personal experience, and sought out new experiences, to help them cope with the demands of coaching. Specifically, responses from seven coaches were categorized into three lower-order themes: continued professional development (e.g., self-improvement, reading journal articles), experience as an athlete (e.g., personal experience as captain, using experience to help athletes deal with their stress), and experience as a coach (e.g., previous success takes a lot of the stress away). Within the lower-order theme of continued professional development, coaches indicated that as well as drawing on previous experience, they continually tried to develop their coaching abilities and knowledge base, and cited this as something that helped them to cope with the demands associated with a world class coaching environment. One coach suggested that he “took lessons from other successful sports teams” that would help him when faced with stressful situations, while another utilized a variety of sources to improve his abilities:

I would read a lot of books from sports people, a lot of religious books, a lot of business books, management books. … You get the chance to be in contact with other sports and they have a lot of courses that you can go on. … So I probably have been to every course that there has been. And, you know, you always learn something.

Approach to Coaching

Seven raw-data themes reflected an adaptable approach to coaching, which six coaches described as a way of coping with stress. These responses were grouped into three lower-order themes: taking a step back (e.g., not getting caught up in the moment, delegation), flexibility (e.g., changing a training session, being more directive in coaching), and consistency (e.g., consistency in approach). Four raw-data themes comprised the most cited lower-order theme in which coaches indicated that taking a step back from stressful situations was a coping strategy they employed. One coach suggested that delegating tasks was a way to cope with coaching stress, while another discussed not getting too involved as a coach:

You see some athletes whose coaches get up with them in the morning, go to the gym, spend a whole day with them, really know them. … And you can see a coach whose more hands on getting more stressed when [the athletes] don't do well, because they’re so much more involved. … We’re a bit more stand-offish.

Maintaining Positive Coach-Athlete Relationships

Developing and maintaining a positive relationship with their athletes was cited by eight coaches as a strategy for coping with stressors. Seven raw-data themes were grouped into this higher-order theme, with coaches stating that having mutual respect and a good relationship with athletes, and having an understanding with the athletes, helped to effectively manage their stress:

I look upon my role as being there 100% for that athlete. If that athlete asks me to run half way round the world to get a glass of water and back again, that would be my job. If they ask me to lick their toes, that would be my job. Whatever it would take to get that athlete to perform in there.

Avoidance

In this higher-order theme, five raw-data themes reflected seven coaches’ tendencies to avoid stressful situations. For example, one coach explained how, in stressful situations involving colleagues or athletes, “once it gets past a certain point where I think that's it, we’re not gonna make any headway now, I’m quite happy to just stop and come back later.”

Confrontation

Five raw-data themes constituted this final higher-order theme. Specifically, five coaches suggested that confronting the stressor or displaying confrontational behaviors were strategies that they used to cope with stressors. Two coaches explained that confronting issues “head on” was a useful coping strategy for them, but might be difficult for young coaches:

I confronted him head on and we’re really good friends because he actually appreciated my directness and honesty. It's real easy for me to do that now, but maybe 10 years ago, I wasn't able to go up to this person and confront them because, I think even as a young coach learning, confrontation was a bit scary.

DISCUSSION

While coaches clearly play an important role in the performance and satisfaction of athletes, they have several additional roles to fill. Sports coaching, particularly at the world class level, is a fundamentally stressful occupation (Gould et al., 2002), yet coaches working within an elite performance environment are only just beginning to receive the research attention and support they ought to have. As the second in a series of studies examining the stress experiences of world class sports coaches in the UK, the purpose of this study was to investigate the responses and effects of stress for world class UK sports coaches, as well as the coping strategies used by these coaches in their attempts to manage stress.

The psychological, behavioral, and physical responses to stress described by the world class coaches in this study were similar to responses that have been described by collegiate level coaches (e.g., becoming tense, fidgety, or agitated; Frey, 2007). However, in discussing the effects of stress, the findings go beyond other studies that have explored stress in coaching. Specifically, while coaches of collegiate athletes have reported the effects of their stress responses on athletes (Frey, 2007), the coaches in the present study also described the ways in which stress negatively affected their own thoughts, behaviors and emotions. Emotional and mental fatigue and a sense of reduced enjoyment were described by several coaches, and, importantly, 6 of the coaches interviewed felt they were losing or questioning their motivation to continue in the job. Indeed, the effects of stress described were comparable to symptoms of burnout previously described in the literature (e.g., Schaufeli & Buunk, 2003). These findings lend support to stress-based explanations of burnout (Smith, 1986), and as Kosa (1990) asserts, withdrawal from coaching as a result of burnout has severe implications for the development of expertise in coaching. While no statistical measures of burnout were taken in the present study, the findings do suggest that burnout resulting from stress might well be a feature of world class sports coaching.

Despite the importance of a positive coach-athlete relationship for athlete performance (Jowett & Cockerill, 2003), over half of the coaches in the present study perceived that their stress responses could have a negative impact on their athletes. Specifically, coaches reported that as part of their own responses to stress, their standard of work dropped, they would fail to get the best out of their athletes, and that in general, the quality of communication between themselves and their athletes would suffer. Moreover, coaches felt that their athletes’ confidence and performances would also be damaged or hindered as a result. Consistent with previous research in which Olympic athletes have reported that coaches’ inability to handle pressure situations and avoid distractions were factors that influenced their performances (Gould, Guinan, Greenleaf, Medbery, & Peterson, 1999), it was apparent in the present study that coaches are acutely aware that the changes in their behavior during times of stress, such as changes in their body language and tone of voice, are potential sources of strain for their athletes. These findings are particularly important when considering that effective verbal and non-verbal communication is considered the most important aspect of coaching (LaVoi, 2007). These situation-specific behavior changes in coaches, and the different ways in which athletes are affected, warrant further investigation. As such, future research should explore the effects of coaches’ stress responses on athletes’ subsequent behaviors and performances, as well as athletes’ perceptions of their relationships with their coaches.

Lazarus (2000) observed that stress is, more often than not, associated with negative responses. While this association does not necessarily fit within a transactional approach to the study of stress, one possible explanation for its perpetuation is that alleviating these negative responses is a major concern for sport psychology practitioners. Despite the focus on negative responses, coaches in the present study did discuss experiences of stress that, upon reflection, they perceived to have positive consequences (e.g., an increase in productivity or increased motivation to succeed). However, coaches felt that experiencing stress was generally negative at the time, and that only after a period of reflection could stressful experiences be viewed as positive. Given these findings, in addition to developing coaches’ use of effective coping strategies, sport psychology practitioners should encourage coaches to reflect upon events that cause significant strain.

While coaches discussed a variety of responses to stress, they also reported a wide range of strategies used to cope with the varying demands of world class coaching. The findings supported a process approach to coping (Nicholls & Polman, 2007), as coaches in the present study often reported using multiple coping strategies to cope with stressors. Although the present study did not attempt to fit coach data into existing coping frameworks (e.g., Anshel, Williams & Hodge, 1997; Lazarus & Folkman, 1984), strategies that could be described as emotion- and problem-focused were discussed by coaches. The most cited higher-order theme to emerge from the interview data (Structuring and Planning) reflected coaches’ abilities to plan ahead and organize as a method of coping with stress. Coaches seemed to be aware, from previous experience, of situations that could potentially result in negative stress responses and therefore took steps to reduce the potential for these situations to have negative outcomes. Similarly to problem-focused strategies identified by athletes (Gould et al., 1993), coaches’ attempted to plan and manage their time to cope with stressors that they experienced. Additional problem-focused strategies described by coaches included attending coaching courses and reading coaching and professional practice journals (i.e., continued professional development). Furthermore, coaches described taking lessons from other successful sports teams and learning from their own experiences as coaches (and as athletes) to help them cope with the demands of coaching. Taken together, these findings certainly have implications for coach education and development, highlighting areas, such as effective structuring and planning, in which younger, developing coaches might benefit from the guidance of successful, experienced coaches.

While it is encouraging that the majority of these experienced coaches seemed to use problem-focused coping strategies, they tended to describe these strategies as responses to situations that they appraised as having the potential to cause strain, rather than as strategies to cope with stressors “in the moment.” Indeed, 8 of the 12 coaches identified distraction as a way of coping. However, while 5 coaches discussed using exercise as a way to cope with stress, the larger of the lower-order themes reflected coaches’ desire to engage in off-task activities to reduce strain. Specifically, coaches described “taking a step back” from potentially stressful situations as a coping strategy. Despite coaches’ propensity to avoid stressors, 10 of the 12 coaches also reported some use of psychological skills in their efforts to manage their stress (e.g., rationalization and self-talk). However, only one coach in the present study reported using relaxation techniques. This might be, in part, due to the competition environment not affording coaches the time or space to utilize “portable” psychological skills (e.g., breathing techniques for relaxation, centering). Consequently, rather than using these skills at the time, coaches appeared to rely on extensive planning to cope with stress and reduce strain. As coaches’ inability to handle pressure situations has been reported by athletes as a significant influence on their performance (Gould et al., 1999), a more detailed exploration of the psychological skills that coaches use in the competition environment is required. Furthermore, from an applied perspective, sport psychologists might be able to assist coaches with developing appropriate mental skills that can be used during competition, “in the moment.”

It would appear, based on the findings of this study, that coaches operating in the unique culture of world class sport require more support to successfully cope with the demands associated with such an environment. Gould et al. (1999) suggested that coaches need psychological support and to work closely with a sport psychologist, yet in the first study of this series (Olusoga et al., 2009), one of the coaches stated, “there's nothing there really to back up the coaches when the coaches need someone to talk to. … I think sometimes, the coaches are forgotten.” As evidenced in the present study, coaches’ loss of motivation and confidence, and the burnout symptoms they experienced, might be attributable to them being ill-equipped to deal with the demands of coaching elite athletes in a pressured environment. Indeed, the coaches’ widespread use of avoidance and limited use of psychological skills suggest that they might benefit from developing their coping skills. While it seems clear that the coach-athlete relationship is stressful for both parties (Frey, 2007), it is also clear that coaches place a high level of importance on that relationship. Specifically, coaches felt that maintaining a positive relationship with their athletes helped them to cope with the stress of coaching. Although previous research has identified that the credibility, enthusiasm, and knowledge of Olympic-level coaches is critical to their athletes’ success (Gould et al., 1999), and their feelings of sport confidence (Hays, Maynard, Thomas, & Bawden, 2007), future research should attempt to explore this complex coach-athlete relationship from the coach's perspective. Investigating methods of facilitating this relationship would be beneficial in aiding coaches and athletes’ understanding of one another in a high-pressure environment.

Strengths and Limitations

As the second in a series of studies investigating world class coaches’ experiences of stress, this study used in-depth interviews to allow a detailed exploration of coaches’ responses to stress, the effects of stress, and the coping strategies they employ. The study built on previous research, and findings revealed that as well as having an impact upon their athletes’ experiences, stressors can have a negative and somewhat longer-term effect on coaches’ own personal lives and relationships. Furthermore, although recent research suggests that elite coaches do employ psychological skills (Thelwell et al., 2008a), the findings of the present study suggested that coaches’ use of such skills to cope with stressors was limited, despite their attempts to use a vast array of coping strategies to cope with the stressors they encountered. It was felt that the small sample size was offset by the participants’ vast wealth of experience in a world class coaching environment (a mean average of over 14 years). Furthermore, to ensure as broad a range of experiences as possible was explored, the sample included male and female coaches and was purposefully taken from a broad range of team and individual sports. Although there has been a recent increase in the study of elite coaches in the UK, by focusing on world class coaches of international level performers, the present study also extended previous literature which has predominantly focused upon collegiate and high-school coaches in North America. Moreover, by examining the ways in which coaches responded to stressors (and the perceived effects for them and their athletes), as well as the coping strategies they used to manage stress, this study explored coaches’ stress experiences beyond an identification and classification of stressors they encounter in their coaching roles.

A potentially limiting factor was the timing of the data collection (i.e., the cycle of competition the coach was in at the time of interview). It is possible that whether coaches had recently returned from a major competition or were in a preparation phase might have influenced their reporting of stress responses. Therefore, future research might consider coaching stress with reference to specific phases of the competitive cycle (e.g., preparing for Olympic competition, returning from a world cup). Furthermore, although the present study has given an insight into the ways in which coaches generally respond to and attempt to cope with stressors, specific responses and coping strategies were not linked with specific stressors that coaches experienced. Although previous research has reported the frequency of stressors that coaches encounter (e.g., Thelwell et al., 2008b), exploring the precise impact of specific organizational and competitive stressors on coaches would be a fruitful area for future research. This would certainly be in keeping with recent stress research conducted with athlete populations (Weston et al., 2009). However, as coaches have described experiencing multiple stressors occurring in combination (Olusoga et al., 2009), it is important to note that it may not be a straightforward task to link specific responses and coping strategies to specific stressors that coaches encounter.

Conclusions and Future Research

The purpose of this study was to explore world class sports coaches’ experiences of stress by investigating the responses and effects of stress for world class UK sports coaches and the coping strategies they use. Findings indicated that coaches responded to stressors in a number of diverse ways. For example, coaches described experiencing symptoms of burnout in response to stressors, as well as immediate physical and emotional responses and longer-term effects on their social lives and relationships. Importantly, coaches also perceived that their responses to stress had direct and indirect effects on their athletes. Further exploration of the psychological skills used by coaches in the competition environment is warranted. While the present study also endeavored to explore the vast array of coping strategies used by world class coaches, we did not attempt to explore coaches’ perceptions of whether or not their coping attempts were effective. While Levy et al. (2009) explored coaches’ perceptions of coping effectiveness using self-report measures, this is still an area which requires further attention if appropriate coping interventions are to be implemented with coaches.

However, the findings of this study do suggest that sport psychology practitioners should work closely with coaches to help them develop the skills and strategies needed to cope with the demands of world class coaching. This could have important implications, not only for the performance and satisfaction of the coaches’ athletes, but also for the coaches’ relationships outside sport. Findings also suggest that successful, experienced coaches might be a valuable source from which younger, developing coaches could draw support and guidance during their development. There seems to be a clear need for sport psychology practitioners and coach education programs to guide coaches towards developing the psychological attributes needed to be successful in a world class coaching environment. Future research is required, however, to determine precisely what successful coaches, and indeed their athletes, feel these important attributes might be.

Notes

1. A copy of the interview guide is available from the first author.