Professional Socialization: A Bridge Between the Explicit and Implicit Curricula

Abstract

Professional socialization has become a notable construct for social work with the publication of the Council on Social Work Education's (2008) revised Educational Policy and Accreditation Standards. Though historically regarded as essential, little is known about the professional socialization of social workers. This article presents professional socialization as a key element that bridges the explicit and implicit curricula. Results from this study provide empirical support for a theoretical framework of the professional socialization of social workers with a particular focus on factors that predict professional socialization, which is defined as a multidimensional, temporal construct beginning before formal education and continuing after it, with values, attitudes, and professional identity as outcomes. Implications for social work education, development of systematic research in this area, and recruitment and retention are discussed.

Professional socialization has emerged as a notable construct for social work as it is explicitly highlighted in the Council on Social Work Education's (CSWE; 2008) revised Educational Policy and Accreditation Standards (EPAS). EPAS denote a tripartite curricular structure including the explicit curriculum (EC), the implicit curriculum (IC), and the field as social work's signature pedagogy (CSWE, 2008). This tripartite structural formulation and the definitions of each of its elements is still fairly new and requires further clarification as schools of social work begin to build on and within it. Each of the three elements is characteristically different but none functions independently. Taken as a unified whole, it becomes clear that particular factors must bridge the three together, and professional socialization is primary among them.

EPAS clearly identifies professional socialization as a facet of the signature pedagogy; in this way, the field practicum can be understood as the primary seat of professional socialization for social work (CSWE, 2008). Though professional socialization is identified discretely in the signature pedagogy, there is not a clear sense of how the construct itself is defined overall, and no clear lines are drawn between the professional socializing element of the signature pedagogy and its relationship to the EC and IC. Much like the field as signature pedagogy, the IC as an explicit concept is also in its nascence (Holosko, Skinner, MacCaughelty, & Stahl, 2010). How the IC is conceptualized is idiosyncratic to individual schools of social work (Holosko et al., 2010), with a particular focus on the critical importance of relationships, communication, and differing normative structures. The importance of relationships, normative structures, and elements of recruiting that factor into the IC are in fact aspects of professional socialization. Given that social work as a profession has a distinct professional culture, the IC is grounded in and meant to support the values, attitudes, and norms relevant to social work as a profession. These elements of a profession's culture serve as the context within which professional socialization occurs. Vehicles for this socialization are both implicit in the culture of social work and individual schools of social work and explicit in the content and structure of social work education; professional socialization occurs in both the school and field settings, and in essence, the signature pedagogy has both EC and IC ties.

As each element of the tripartite structure becomes more clearly defined, the reciprocal relationship between the three components will require careful attention. This article identifies the professional socialization of social workers as one of the primary means of bridging the EC and IC and sheds light on opportunities to make the most of both. Professional socialization has been inherent to the social work profession and to social work education since its inception and has largely remained implicit (Miller, 2010). In an effort to provide conceptual clarity to the definition of professional socialization for social work, Miller (2010) has explicated a theoretical framework, which begins to make the implicit explicit and also unravels some of the key factors that relate to the professional socialization of social workers

PROFESSIONAL SOCIALIZATION

Professional socialization is central to social work's ethos, yet, perhaps because of its inextricability, its definition is presently ambiguous. It occurs as an outcropping of educational content, structure, and relationships (Holosko et al., 2010; Miller, 2010; Shuval, 1980), both explicitly and implicitly in the classroom, field, and beyond. As social work has professionalized over time, unity and adherence to a traditional mission have been debated (Specht & Courtney, 1994). Professional socialization, though accepted as an integral aspect of social work education (Barretti, 2004b) and in essence, grounded in the traditional mission, has been the focus of little systematic research. Questions remain then regarding not only what professional socialization to social work actually looks like, but also how it occurs and what components are most critical. Generally, as people enter a profession, they adapt externally to meet requirements of the particular career role and internally in terms of how they understand and conceive of self in that role (Bargal, 1981; McGowen & Hart, 1990). Professional socialization then involves the intended and unintended consequences of an educational program as the student shifts from prior reference groups to professional reference groups and develops a relationship to the values, norms, and culture of that profession (Shuval, 1980).

Theoretical Framework

This study is based on a theoretical framework designed to capture the professional socialization of social workers as a comprehensive, multidimensional, stage-based, though not linear, process (Miller, 2010). The framework integrates two primary theories historically used to describe and explain professional socialization: structural functionalism and symbolic interactionism. The purposeful integration of two seemingly divergent theories serves to capture a comprehensive picture of a larger whole in which each theory explains only segments if applied independently (Simpson, Back, Ingles, Kerckhoff, & McKinney, 1979). The facets of professional socialization explained best by structural functionalism can largely be understood as residing in the EC (i.e., structure, content); those explained best by symbolic interactionism can be understood as residing in the IC (i.e., culture, relationship, self-development).

Exhaustive discussion of the theoretical framework is beyond the scope of this article; however, in sum, the theoretical framework describes professional socialization to social work as occurring during three interrelated stages: (1) presocialization, which occurs in a person's life prior to entering social work education and includes early socialization and anticipatory socialization to the profession itself; (2) formal socialization, the years in which the person is a student within the designated bounds of the social work educational structure; and (3) practice after formal socialization, which includes the period after completion of formal education that captures the scope of the career lifetime (Miller, 2010; Shuval, 1980). Though occurring linearly in time, the stages are interrelated in terms of their relationship to the professional socialization outcome. Socialization to the profession begins before formal education and continues over the course of the career lifetime (Barretti, 2004a; Miller, 2010; Shuval, 1980).

There are three key components nested within the stages: (1) content, which includes technical skills and knowledge imparted during formal education as well as values, norms, and attitudes; (2) structure, which includes institutionalized social work education as well as the particular organization of each school of social work; and (3) the process of change, which captures the dynamic and individually idiosyncratic elements of professional socialization contingent on relationships with key figures, and choices regarding whether or how to accept socializing messages received through content and structure (Miller, 2010; Shuval, 1980). According to the framework, the outcome of the professional socialization process is understood as a career-long evolving relationship to three dimensions: professional values, professional attitude, and professional identity (Miller, 2010). Each stage has direct bearing on these professional socialization outcomes, but once formal education has begun, the relationships between stages, nested components, and the outcome, emphasize reciprocity; it is this reciprocity that ties together the EC and IC. This article discusses parts of a larger study and provides empirical support for elements of this theoretical framework; it also points to the ties between the EC and IC, while answering the primary research question: What factors predict professional socialization to social work?

REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE

Though there appears to be longstanding and general agreement regarding the importance of the professional socialization of social workers (Bargal, 1981; Barretti, 2004b; Judah, 1976; Merdinger, 1982; Pardeck & McCallister, 1991; Varley, 1963), there is a dearth of systematic research in this area (Barretti, 2004b; Miller, 2010; Weiss, Gal, & Cnaan, 2004). Thus, a number of disparate though related bodies of literature were reviewed for the larger study of which this article reports a part. Building on Barretti (2004b), the literature reviewed is organized under the following umbrella categories: (a) professional socialization specific studies, (b) the effects of prior and anticipatory socialization on professional socialization, (c) professional preferences reflective of mission of the profession, and (d) demographics and professional socialization. Because a complete review of this breadth of literature is beyond the scope of this article, the author provides summaries of relevant studies.

Professional Socialization Specific Studies

A number of studies measured just one element of professional socialization and compared social work students at two points in time to explore whether or not students’ orientations to values changed over the course of their social work education. Findings from these studies indicate that students’ values largely did not change (Brown, 1970; Judah, 1979; Varley, 1963; Wodarski, Pippin, & Daniels, 1988). Other pretest and posttest studies were organized around exploring changes in attitudinal positions of students after engaging in specific courses or field related activities. Orten (1981) found no significant differences from pre- to posttest. Unlike Orten, Van Soest (1996) uncovered change in an undesirable direction. Similarly, Pardeck and McCallister (1991) suggested that undergraduate social work education had little or no effect on the degree of personal growth and development of students. And, in direct contrast, some studies suggested that students’ values, attitudinal positions, and sense of self did change in positive directions as a result of participation in social work education (Frans & Moran, 1993; Landau, 1999; Merdinger, 1982; Moran, 1989; O'Connor & Dalgliesh, 1986; Sharwell, 1974).

Some professional socialization related studies were designed to explore differences between groups (Abbott, 1988; Cryns, 1977; Csikai & Rozensky, 1997; Judah, 1979; Manzo & Ross-Gordon, 1990; McLeod & Meyer, 1967; Merdinger, 1982; Neikrug, 1978; O'Neil, 1980; Patchner, Gullerud, Downing, Donaldson, & Leuenberger, 1987; Valentine, Gandy, & Weinbach, 1986; Wodarski et al., 1988), focusing on a variety of different subsets of social work students and practitioners; there was no replication among the studies so findings were based on a single exploration. In most cases, no differences were found between groups. Where differences did emerge, findings were also contradictory. For example, one study suggested that undergraduate students had a more positive view of human nature than did graduate students (Cryns, 1977); whereas in another study, master's of social work degree (MSW) students were found to be more idealistic than bachelor's of social work degree (BSW) students (Csikai & Rozensky, 1997).

In most cases these studies were not explicitly driven by professional socialization theory, and therefore, do little to systematically advance understanding in this area. Because there appears to be no replication—and professional socialization has not been uniformly defined in this body of literature—the contradictory findings reveal that, as Barretti (2004b) suggested, more questions than answers remain with regard to how the professional socialization of social workers is understood and about the factors that relate to socialization.

Prior and Anticipatory Socialization

A number of studies explored the effects of prior (primary or childhood socialization) and/or anticipatory socialization on professional socialization. Anticipatory socialization can be understood as active attempts to adjust to and adopt aspects of a culture that one hopes to become a part of. Consistent with the theoretical framework (Miller, 2010), this body of literature suggested that both prior and anticipatory socialization do inform the stage of socialization associated with formal social work education and also play a direct role in professional socialization outcomes. Findings from a number of studies suggested that people inclined to enter the social work profession are distinguishable from other groups with regard to their values orientation and that self-selection plays a role in the socialization process (Abbott, 1988; McLeod & Meyer, 1967; Merdinger, 1982). Other studies suggested that an idealistic orientation plays a role in the choice to enter the social work profession and this attitude has a bearing on students’ expectations and on the formal educational process (Csikai & Rozensky, 1997; Lev-Wiesel, 2003).

Family experiences were found to have an effect on the career choices of students who were inclined to engage in private practice as opposed to those students inclined to engage in macro practice (Biggerstaff, 2000). In addition, students who began their formal social work education at the BSW level were found to indicate a preference for work in the public sector more often than their counterparts who had other undergraduate degrees (Biggerstaff, 2000). Youth was found to be associated with greater degrees of professional socialization as was lower socioeconomic status (Hayes & Varley, 1965; Varley, 1963), and gender appeared to be associated with the differential acquisition of values (Hayes & Varley, 1965). However, because of the contradictory findings associated with the change in values and attitudes over time as noted earlier, questions remain as to whether the effects of prior and anticipatory socialization are recognizable and consistent throughout the process of professional socialization, or if, as a result of formal education and practice after formal education, there are shifts that bear teasing apart.

Mission of the Profession

A number of studies have been organized around exploring whether the professional preferences of social work students are reflective of the traditional mission of the profession: “ameliorating the social conditions of the disadvantaged through social reform and interest in serving those populations” (Bogo, Raphael, & Roberts, 1993, Current Study section, para. 3). Though this orientation might be dominant in the literature and may be an organizing feature of the institutionalized definition of professional socialization, some believe that “social work has abandoned its mission to help the poor and oppressed” (Specht & Courtney, 1994, p. 4). Findings in this body of literature were also inconsistent; some studies suggested that students’ preferences were not reflective of the traditional mission of the profession (Aviram & Katan, 1991; Rubin & Johnson, 1984; Rubin, Johnson, & DeWeaver, 1986; Weiss et al., 2004), whereas others suggested they were (Abell & McDonell, 1990; Bogo, Michalski, Raphael, & Roberts, 1995; Butler, 1990; Limb & Organista, 2003, 2006; Perry, 2001). Some particularly divergent findings emerged with regard to students’ interests in pursuing private practice (see Abell & McDonell, 1990; Rubin & Johnson, 1984). Again, differences in the way that questions were asked, the ways that constructs were defined, and the measures used to operationalize constructs may contribute to the inconsistencies in findings.

Demographics and Professional Socialization

According to the literature, many demographic characteristics were found to be related to professional socialization. Younger and/or undergraduate students changed more or displayed a more desirable values or attitude position (Barretti, 2004a; Hayes & Varley, 1965; Judah, 1979; Moran, 1989; Varley, 1963). Differences associated with gender were mixed; there were changes in both positive and negative directions for men (Abbott, 1988; Barretti, 2004a; Hayes & Varley, 1965; Judah, 1979; Pardeck & McCallister, 1991; Varley, 1963), and men were found to be more idealistic than women (Csikai & Rozensky, 1997). Respondents of color were found to be more likely to express preferences that were more resonant with the traditional mission of the profession than their White counterparts (Abell & McDonell, 1990; Barretti, 2004a; Biggerstaff, 2000; Judah, 1979; Limb & Organista, 2003, 2006) and were less likely to shift in their attitudes associated with poverty than were White respondents (Orten, 1981). Socioeconomic status appeared to have mixed or inconsistent associations with professional socialization (Hayes & Varley, 1965; Orten, 1981; Varley, 1963). Political party affiliation and political philosophy (Abbott, 1988), religious identification (Landau, 1999; McLeod & Meyer, 1967), and parental level of education (Abbott, 1988) appeared to relate to professional socialization.

Given the meta-nature of the concept of professional socialization and the relative absence of systematic research in this area, the scope of related literature is vast and in many cases dated. However, there is a good deal to be gleaned from the studies reviewed, which serves to inform the development of a more systematic process for research in this area. This study was designed to fill some gaps in the literature by grounding the research in a theoretical framework, defining professional socialization as a comprehensive process, and attempting to replicate prior studies where possible through use of extant measures and/or by incorporation of exploratory questions that emanate from the literature. Because there are a number of variables identified in the literature as potentially relevant, this exploratory study aimed to organize those variables by categories anchored to theory, which comprise a comprehensive set of potential predictors of professional socialization. This article's focus is to delineate those variables that predict professional socialization and to what extent, and those that do not. This author hypothesized that multiple predictors, falling into a series of related categories, would predict professional socialization differentially across the three outcome facets.

METHOD

Sample and Procedure

A purposive sampling strategy was used to obtain anonymous data from seven cohorts of social work students and alumni in an attempt to represent a series of points along the social work education and practice trajectory, ranging from “beginning BSW” up through “alumni practicing up to 5 years post MSW.” The sample drawn from a large Mid-Atlantic public university included undergraduate (BSW) and graduate (MSW) students at a series of five progressive points in their educational program, and two cohorts of MSW alumni: one group that graduated 1 year prior to data collection, and the other, 5 years prior to data collection. To recruit currently enrolled students, the researcher visited 25 BSW and MSW classes to introduce the study. If time allowed, data were collected in classes; if time did not allow, the researcher distributed letters of invitation and surveys and instructed students to leave their completed surveys in a designated mailbox.

To gather data from alumni, letters of invitation, the survey, and a self-addressed stamped envelope were sent to a random sample of 500 MSW alumni from the two designated graduating classes. One week after the initial mailing a follow-up postcard was mailed to all 500. These procedures resulted in an overall response rate of 51% (n = 489). Given the different recruitment strategies, the response rate for current student groups was higher (66%) than that for alumni (40%). The study procedures were approved by the university's Institutional Review Board.

Measures

Outcome variables

The Professional Opinion Scale (POS) provides “a methodologically sound and convenient means for assessing degree of commitment to social work values” (Abbott, 1988, p. 641). A total mean score for the 40-item POS (Abbott, 1988) was used for this study (α = .84). Questions are designed on a 5-point Likert scale (1 = strongly agree to 5 = strongly disagree); higher scores correspond to greater commitment to social work values, and lower scores correspond to lesser commitment to social work values (Abbott, 1988). The scoring procedures for this study followed Abbott (2003) and Greeno, Hughes, Hayward, and Parker (2007).

Social Work Idealism (SWI)

The SWI assessment (Csikai & Rozensky, 1997) was used to measure attitudes related to social work's values, history, and mission. Social work idealism was defined as “valuing and promoting individual and societal change out of the belief that the human condition can change through skilled interventions” (Measures section, para. 1). This construct is an organizing feature of the profession and its mission, and thus representative of desirable social worker attitudes (Csikai & Rozensky, 1997). The SWI asked respondents to select their level of agreement with 26 statements using a 5-point Likert scale (1 = strongly disagree to 5 = strongly agree). The α = .68 for this study's sample is not consonant with the α = .81 in the Csikai and Rozensky (1997) study.

Social Work Identity (SWID)

The SWID assessment comprises a series of five interrelated measures designed to capture social work identity (Bogo et al., 1993 , 1995), including preferences for (a) specific employment activities; (b) service fields; (c) self-identification, all of which yield ranked data; (d) practice setting, which is evaluated by a response to one categorical question; and (e) practice with specific populations, a continuous measure. For this study's purpose, measure “e” was modified to include 12 questions reflective of the original dimensions of the scale, which were kept because of clarity and directness. A principal components analysis with Varimax rotation of the 12-item version yielded four components: (1) desire to engage in direct practice, (2) desire to function in research and policy related positions, (3) commitment to social justice, and (4) desire to work with the “worried well.” Scores were created for the four components using the Anderson-Rubin method in the principal components analysis (Statistical Package for Social Sciences [SPSS]). Via this method, scores are standardized to ensure orthogonality of the estimated factors (all have a mean of 0 and a standard deviation of 1). Measure “e” became continuous variables.

Predictor Variables

The Social Work Career Influence Questionnaire (SWCIQ)

The SWCIQ (Biggerstaff, 2000) gathers information about factors that influence the choice of social work as a career and includes four subscales: (1) personal and family experiences (α = .82), (2) desire to be a therapist (α = .83), (3) prestige of the profession (α = .83), and (4) social change mission of the profession (α = .86). A fifth subscale of three items relating to the desire to engage in macro social work practice was added (α = .83). Respondents are asked to rate the degree to which each item influenced their choice to enter the social work profession on a 5-point Likert scale (1 = not at all to 5 = strongly). This scale operationalized elements of prior and anticipatory socialization.

Rewards and Costs Questionnaire (RCQ)

The RCQ (Lev-Wiesel, 2003) was used to further operationalize anticipatory socialization and contains two subscales: rewards (α = .82) and costs (α = .80). Respondents are asked to rate, on a 4-point Likert scale (1 = very false to 4 = very true), their agreement with 22 statements designed to assess their perceptions of various rewards and costs of entering the social work profession. Scoring procedures were consistent with those used by Lev-Wiesel (2003).

Effect of socializing agents

To begin to ascertain how relationships with key figures affect socialization and the “process of change” component of the theoretical framework, respondents were asked questions about their most influential social work role model and contexts in which they have engaged in discussions related to social work (Valentine et al., 1986). Responses adapted from Valentine, Gandy, and Weinbach (1986) included both academic and nonacademic options. To further explore this component, additional items were designed for this study's purposes, which address the effect of classroom and field experiences on values, possible inconsistencies between the two, and the effect of clients on respondents’ social work identity.

Data Analysis

Data were analyzed using SPSS v15.0; descriptive and bivariate statistics were used. A series of six hierarchical multiple regression analyses were performed to determine what factors predict the professional socialization of social workers. The dependent variables included in the regression analyses reflect the three facets of the professional socialization outcome, including social work values (POS), attitudes (SWI), and aspects of professional identity (four factors of SWID “e”). Predictor variables were entered in six steps consistently across all six regressions with the order of entry informed by the theoretical model and the social work literature. The 25 independent variables were entered in the following order to capture both the stages and the components of the theoretical framework: (1) demographic characteristics, (2) prior socialization, (3) anticipatory socialization, (4) phase in the education/practice trajectory (representing each of the seven cohorts of students and alumni), (5) the effect of socializing agents, and (6) the effect of socializing agents (exploratory items).

RESULTS

The sample was primarily female (91.4%) and White (65.9%), with a mean age of 30.4 years (SD = 8.93), ranging in ages from 18 to 72. Of the 489 respondents, 80.6% were, or had been, full-time social work students, and 35.2% had paid social work experience prior to beginning social work education. Of the MSW and alumni respondents, 29.1% had a BSW. Of the 175 alumni respondents, the large majority were employed as social workers (82.3%), licensed (79.9%) and working in direct practice (67.9%). For SWID “c,” when asked to indicate their top two self-descriptive choices from a series of 14 professional titles, the largest group of respondents selected “clinical social worker” across both rankings (n = 249, 50.9%), and almost at an equal rate, “social worker” (n = 246, 50.3%). Descriptive statistics for variables included in the regression models are provided in Table 1.

TABLE 1 Aggregate Means and Standard Deviations for Continuous Measures

Measure	N	M	SD
POS	470	4.005	.381
SWI	486	3.621	.283
RCQ: rewards	484	3.028	.423
RCQ: costs	483	1.913	.596
SWCIQ: personal and family experiences	488	3.261	.869
SWCIQ: desire to be therapist	488	2.586	.887
SWCIQ: prestige of profession	488	2.458	.821
SWCIQ: social change mission	488	3.936	.758
SWCIQ: macro exploratory	488	2.882	1.238
12 SWID items:
I do not think I will ever work as a supervisor or manager.	483	2.033	1.259
I am interested in generating knowledge by doing research or program evaluation.	482	2.813	1.394
I plan on working directly with clients.	482	4.413	1.016
I would prefer to work within a multiculturally oriented environment.	482	4.037	.996
A main reason I am entering (entered) social work is (was) to help the disadvantaged.	483	4.006	1.026
I would not mind working with chronically ill clients.	481	3.329	1.335
I intend to have a private practice.	482	3.012	1.480
I prefer not to work for Child Protective Services.	482	3.276	1.598
I would really prefer to work with voluntary as opposed to involuntary clients.	479	3.530	1.201
I would not want to work in a social policy position.	479	2.818	1.387
I would not want to work as a community planner or organizer.	480	2.935	1.427
I would rather not work as an administrator.	481	2.744	1.401
Note. M = mean; SD = standard deviation; POS = Professional Opinion Scale; SWI = Social Work Idealism; RCQ = Rewards and Costs Questionnaire; SWCIQ = Social Work Career Influence Questionnaire; SWID = Social Work Identity.

All assumptions were adequately met for the six regression analyses. All six models were significant at the p < .0005 level (see Table 2 for N, F, and p values for each regression).

TABLE 2 Values for the Six Multiple Regression Analyses by Outcome Variable

Outcome Variable	N	F	p
POS	315	8.355	<.0005
SWI	323	3.835	<.0005
SWID-DP	316	14.408	<.0005
SWID-PR	316	3.286	<.0005
SWID-SJ	316	7.257	<.0005
SWID-WW	316	4.106	<.0005
Note. POS = Professional Opinion Scale; SWI = Social Work Idealism; SWID = Social Work Identity; DP = Direct Practice; PR = Policy/Research; SJ = Social Justice; WW = “Worried Well.”

Given the number of predictors, discussion of all statistics for the six regressions would be lengthy (see Table 3 for R ² data and a summary of predictors across the six models). For the final step of the regressions, forward entry was used; therefore, statistics are only available for that step when those variables were retained in the model. Some variables were nonsignificant predictors across all six analyses, including race/ethnicity, political affiliation, political philosophy, most influential social work role model, and the degree to which respondents experienced inconsistencies between the values emphasized in the classroom and those emphasized in field experiences. Other than these commonalities, there do not appear to be any distinct patterns of predictors that cross the six analyses providing support for the theoretical framework that considers each dependent variable as a distinct construct that composes the larger complex whole of professional socialization. The R ² scores range from .15–.51 for the six regressions; this wide spectrum of variability is warranted given the exploratory nature of this study. In an attempt to begin to provide a systematic basis for theoretically grounded research in this area, it was essential to include a broad but empirically driven set of variables as both predictors and outcomes. As research builds in this area, the relative significance of identified variables will likely shift.

TABLE 3 Summary of the Six Multiple Regression Analyses With Standardized Coefficients for Significant Predictors

	Dependent Variables
	POS	SWI	SWID-DP	SWID-PR	SWID-SJ	SWID-WW
Independent Variables	β	β	β	β	β	β
Demographic characteristics
Age	.106*	−.064	−.106*	−.016	−.012	−.035
Gender	.024	.133*	−.025	−.022	.080	.150**
Prior socialization
SWCIQ: personal and family experiences	−.173***	.033	.200***	.061	−.112*	1.102
SES of family of origin	.020	.092	.103*	.041	−.042	.010
Anticipatory socialization
SWCIQ: desire to be therapist	.021	.021	.454***	−.198**	.163**	.337***
SWCIQ: prestige of profession	−.230***	−.035	−.129*	.116	−.093	−.089
SWCIQ: social change	.211***	.296***	−.127*	.141*	.509***	−.099
SWCIQ: macro practice	−.035	.016	−.417***	−.382***	−.064	.068
RCQ: rewards	.090	.206***	.172***	−.036	−.020	−.066
RCQ: costs	−.060	.114*	−.029	.134*	.138**	.137**
BSW versus other degree	−.177*	.007	.087*	−.051	−.079	−.138**
Paid prior social work experience	−.012	−.019	.044	−.019	−.117*	−.190***
Education/practice trajectory phase	−.042	−.041	.040	−.014	−.118*	.093
Effect of socializing agents
Influential social work role model	−.039	−.090	.067	−.043	.028	−.085
Context of social work discussions	−.045	−.061	−.088*	.025	−.085	−.031
SW values emphasized in classroom					.136**
SW values emphasized in field					−.141**
Values emphasized in classroom influence practice	.115*
Values emphasized in field influence practice			−.086*
Effect of clients on being social worker	.145**
Clients’ success reinforced desire to be social worker				−.136*
Adjusted R ^2	.369	.168	.505	.148	.332	.185
Note. POS = Professional Opinion Scale; SWI = Social Work Idealism; SWID = Social Work Identity; DP = Direct Practice; PR = Policy/Research; SJ = Social Justice; WW = “Worried Well”; SWCIQ = Social Work Career Influence Questionnaire; SES = socio-economic status; RCQ = Rewards and Costs Questionnaire; BSW = bachelor's of social work degree; SW = social work.
*p < .05. **p < .01. ***p < .001.

Some variables appear as significant predictors in many of the regression analyses. The most frequently occurring predictor of professional socialization to social work is the SWCIQ “social change mission of the profession” subscale, which is significant for five of the six regressions, indicating that entering the profession with a commitment to social change is a strong indicator of socialization to the profession. The next strongest predictors are the SWCIQ “desire to be a therapist” subscale and the RCQ “costs” subscale, both significant in four of the regressions, suggesting that entering the profession with a “desire to be a therapist” and an awareness of the “costs” associated with a career in social work are also strong indicators of socialization to the profession. The SWCIQ “personal and family experiences” subscale and whether respondents had or were currently pursuing a BSW are significant predictors in three of the regressions. The remaining variables yielded significant findings in either one or two of the regression analyses. The variability of significant predictors across the six multiple regression analyses points to the complexity of the process of professional socialization and the need to refine measurement and engage in extensive future research in this area.

DISCUSSION

The six multiple regression analyses were used in this exploratory study to examine whether predictors reflective of the theoretical framework and supported by the literature were significantly related to professional socialization. Taken together, findings from this group of analyses indicate that aspects of all of the potential groups of influences predict one or more facets of professional socialization. Because findings from these analyses are so expansive, and in some cases reflect little overlap in predictive patterns, some key examples are summarized here.

Demographic Characteristics

Contrary to previous findings (Barretti, 2004a; Hayes & Varley, 1965; Judah, 1979; Moran, 1989; Varley, 1963), age had a positive relationship to commitment to social work values in this sample. Because age and phase in the education/practice trajectory were not highly correlated predictors, it appears that it is purely age and not level of social work education or practice experience that had an effect on socialization. Age was also found to be negatively related to the inclination to engage in direct practice. Because the phase in the education practice trajectory was not highly correlated with age, and not a significant predictor itself, these findings may have some relationship to perspectives on the job market, life experience, relative career aspirations, and nature of exposure to the spectrum of social work related job options. Given the high proportion of nontraditional students in both undergraduate and graduate social work programs, it is essential to consider how chronological age may bear on how students relate to the profession as a whole, why they have made the choice to enter it, and how this may inform their practice choices.

Gender is also related to socialization to social work. Overall, men in this sample appear to be more interested than women in working with the “worried well”; similar to Csikai and Rozensky's (1997) findings, relatively speaking, men are more idealistic than women. These findings point to the need to develop a greater understanding of the motivations of men and women who enter the social work profession in the context of prevailing social constructions, the nature of social and market based structures, historical questions of the prestige of the profession, and possible differences in responses to educational structure and expectations. Socialization to gender role expectations may bear strongly on how students relate to their role as social work professionals. It fits within the bounds of both the EC and IC to facilitate students’ processes of deconstructing these role expectations as they cement their relationship to the profession and to themselves as social workers.

Prior Socialization

For respondents, the less that “personal and family experiences” influenced their choice to pursue a career in social work, the greater their commitment to social work values and the greater their commitment to social justice. The direction of influence here points to an interesting distinction between those whose professional socialization seems to be directly influenced by their prior socialization and those whose professional socialization may not be. There could be a relationship to the difference between a self- and other-orientation that influences the choice to engage in a social work career and what particular path that career might take. Given the broad scope of social work, motivation to enter the profession and a presupposed chosen career path should also factor in to facilitating students’ active, specific, and directed reflections about professional identity and their relationship to professional values and attitudes that could serve to merge key elements of explicit content-driven curriculum and implicit developmental features.

The socioeconomic status of respondents’ families of origin is also a significant predictor of professional socialization. Those respondents of higher socioeconomic status are more inclined to engage in direct practice. It is possible that the personal value systems of those originating from families of higher socioeconomic status may have bearing on the type of services they choose to provide within the context of the profession. This should be a key consideration for social work educators as they require students to reflect on the potential differences between personal and professional values and how they will need to negotiate those differences in practice.

Unlike the literature, no relationships were found between political affiliation (Abbott, 1988) or political philosophy (Abbott, 1988; Judah, 1979) and professional socialization. Future research needs to factor in how these questions are asked. Are the most widely used approaches to gathering these data actually serving to capture the breadth of meaning associated with these variables? From the perspective of culturally competent education, research, and the theoretical framework used here, it will be critical to gain clarity regarding how best to make use of the diversity among social work students in the aggregate, but also to make space for individual students to be socialized in their own idiosyncratic ways.

Anticipatory Socialization

All the variables that composed the anticipatory socialization construct significantly related to some aspect of professional socialization, providing strong support for the theoretical framework that anticipatory socialization plays a key role in the formal socialization process (Abbott, 1988; Bargal, 1981; Barretti, 2004a; Miller, 2010; Shuval, 1980) and also indicating the need for further research in this area.

Surprisingly, and contrary to a strong position taken in the literature, the inclination to enter the profession because of a “desire to be a therapist” (Biggerstaff, 2000) was related to a greater commitment to social justice. Unlike Rubin and Johnson (1984) and Rubin, Johnson, and DeWeaver (1986), and contrary to Specht's and Courtney's position (1994), these findings suggest that the desire to be a therapist does not necessarily conflict with a commitment to the profession's traditional mission, but it may relate instead to a different means of pursuing or understanding that mission. It is essential for future research to focus on how practice preference intersects with values and the realities of the current job market. Context and timing play an important role, though social work may evolve as a profession in terms of practice application if its mission remains static in words but subject to divergent interpretation in actual practice; without explicitly identifying this rift, it could lead to an inconsistent framework for professional socialization. Respondents in this sample identified as clinical social workers as often as they self-identified as social workers. That they chose to own a title, which made explicit their membership in the professional culture, rather than one that excluded the actual term, social work (such as psychotherapist), speaks to commitment to the profession. It will be essential for educators to understand what it is social work students think they are saying about themselves when they self-identify as clinical social workers rather than social workers, and why this distinction feels important. Findings also suggest that those who chose to pursue a career in social work because of a commitment to social change were more committed to social work values, had a more idealistic social work attitude orientation, were more inclined to hold policy and research positions, were more committed to social justice, and were less inclined to engage in direct practice. In an effort toward alleviating some of the perceptions that a great divide exists between those interested in macro practice and those interested in micro practice, greater attention needs to be paid to how commitment to social justice translates. This combination of findings furthers the idea that there may be multiple ways to understand or translate a commitment to social justice and how idealism informs practice choice as well as multiple paths for socialization to the professional culture.

Respondents who were less influenced to pursue a career in social work by ideas of prestige, or a lack of it in the profession, appear to have a stronger commitment to social work values and a greater desire to engage in direct practice. That professional prestige is not a motivator among those respondents lends support to the idea that a self-selection process is at play during anticipatory socialization (Abbott, 1988; Merdinger, 1982) and that people may enter the profession with a preexisting propensity for the values that characterize social work. Further, findings suggest that respondents with a greater anticipatory sense of the rewards and costs associated with a social work career have a more idealistic attitude orientation. Prior research has suggested that an idealistic orientation plays a role in the choice to enter the social work profession (Csikai & Rozensky, 1997; Lev-Wiesel, 2003). Much like the idea that the prestige of the profession bears little on the choice to pursue a career in social work, idealism tends to remain in the face of awareness of costs as well. Knowledge of those costs does not seem to hamper the choice to pursue a career in social work. This provides opportunities for educators if keeping idealism alive is a goal of professional socialization (a critical question that needs to be considered). A balanced exposure to the profession provides opportunities for students to feel more prepared to deal with the costs as they arise in practice and not at the expense of their professional attitude orientation. Incorporating service-learning throughout the curriculum, in addition to the field placement, could provide students with exponentially greater opportunities for exposure to the profession (and its costs and rewards) and also to develop their critically reflective understanding of practice (Miller, Tice, & Hall, 2011).

The relevance of anticipatory socialization provides essential insight for recruitment and retention efforts housed generally in the IC, which have direct ties to how the EC is delivered. As Whitaker, Weismiller, and Clark (2006) suggested, there is a growing concern regarding the increasing need for social services and the current capacity of the social work workforce. Anticipatory socialization is an aspect of professional socialization that the formal educational structure has little to no influence over, but which plays a particularly influential role in the process. Teasing apart when and how people become anticipatorily socialized to social work can provide keys to targeted efforts to promote the profession, fill in gaps and shift misapprehensions, and grow the capacity of the workforce. Given that social work educators have no influence on why students choose to enter the profession, it is essential for educators to consider the need to develop a clear and early understanding of what students carry with them as they begin formal social work education. It is critical to understand how students anticipate their relationship to the profession, and that this anticipatory relationship is a valuable proving ground for ways in which professional socialization will unfold. This provides space to inform how schools of social work build and identify their IC and how to integrate that curriculum with what is delivered explicitly.

Education/Practice Trajectory

Being further along the education/practice trajectory was related to less of a commitment to social justice. This finding lends support to the anecdotal contention in the literature that as practitioners are exposed more and more to the realities of the profession, something happens to dampen their idealism, and therefore, their commitment to social justice. This finding is a critical point of consideration and again invites questions about the traditional mission of the profession, the expectations of educators and practitioners, and the ways in which students are or are not exposed to the realities of the profession throughout their education. Findings related to costs and rewards suggest that students are ready to hold on to their idealism with an understanding of the costs of the profession, at least in idea. Facilitating comfort with uncertainty needs to be a critical component of how social work students are educated both in the EC and IC; developing this degree of comfort, in concert with a strong ability to think critically, goes a long way toward equipping social work practitioners with the ability to cope in the face of everyday challenges, which may impede their abilities to hold on to their idealism and stay focused on social justice.

Effect of Socializing Agents

Respondents who reported that social work values were emphasized in their classrooms and those who reported that social work values were not emphasized in their field experiences, were more committed to social justice. And, respondents who reported that values emphasized in their classroom experiences were more likely to influence their practices were more strongly committed to social work values. It appears that the focus on social work values in the classroom has an effect on students’ overall relationship to the profession as does the seeming absence of a focus (perhaps explicitly) on social work values in the field. This link between emphasis on values in the classroom and commitment to values in practice points to the need to examine more closely whether and how values are emphasized in the classroom and field, and also inconsistencies between the two, particularly given the implied scope of professional socializing responsibilities placed on the field practicum as signature pedagogy (CSWE, 2008). If students develop their relationship to social work values more particularly in the classroom, the classroom should then be understood as a critical seat of values acquisition; this suggests that the field does not function alone as the primary socializing agent, but instead functions in collaboration with both EC and IC elements in the classroom environment.

Respondents who reported that clients had a strong effect on their thoughts, perceptions, and feelings about what it means to be a social worker were more strongly committed to social work values, suggesting that relationships with clients may link directly to professional identity. Those who reported that their clients’ success had not reinforced their desire to be a social worker were more inclined to hold policy and research related positions. If anticipatory socialization has bearing on practice preferences, those who were inclined to engage in policy and research related work might approach the profession from a different perspective with regard to clients and how they factor into professional identity. The idea of clients as socializing agents has not been considered in prior research. It is essential to build this into measures of professional socialization to develop a greater understanding of this dynamic process that again should have a location in both the EC and IC. Questions about the relevance of proximal as opposed to more removed relationships to the people affected by social work service at all levels appear to be essential when considering the influence of clients in the socialization process.

There are some limitations that warrant consideration when interpreting these findings. First, data were collected from students and alumni of one public school of social work and may not be representative of all social work students and alumni; therefore, the generalizability of findings may be limited. Future research should focus on national samples to provide opportunities to determine in what ways the culture of particular schools of social work or differences in region may have bearing on professional socialization. Second, some of this study's data were gathered retrospectively, so there is the possibility of inaccurate reporting associated with the need to rely on memory. Further, the possibility exists that respondents’ memories of their past experiences were affected by their actual experience of participating in social work education and/or practice, thus contributing to potential response bias. Because these anticipatory socialization data appear to be particularly meaningful to understanding this process of professional socialization and to informing links between the EC and IC, future research should focus on locating samples of potential respondents who have not yet entered the formal education process (i.e., high school career fairs and other recruiting efforts) and should also focus on establishing rigorous means of measuring and tracking this construct over time. Finally, with the exception of the POS, little is known about the reliability and validity of the measures included in the study. In most cases, known internal consistency reliability for the measures was high in this study's sample. Future research should also focus on how the vast scope of data relevant to professional socialization is collected. It will be essential to develop valid and reliable measures of professional socialization as a comprehensive process, rather than as a series of separate constructs.

This exploratory study begins to fill some gaps in the literature and to shed light on professional socialization and how it acts as a bridging factor between the EC and IC. In addition, it provides a foundation for systematically building future research in this area. This study is grounded in a theoretical framework that includes a grouping of distinct constructs that compose the larger whole of professional socialization to social work. The fit between the measures used for this study, which were specifically located in the extant literature and linked to the theoretical framework, provide evidence of construct validity, which lends itself to the early efforts to develop a reliable and valid measure of professional socialization.

IMPLICATIONS AND CONCLUSION

Social work is a profession characterized by its agility and its rich cultural history. Students and practitioners are being continually socialized into the profession and its culture; that socialization encapsulates a series of essential considerations for individual practitioners, social work education, and the profession. From an empirical and systematic standpoint, little is known about the professional socialization of social workers, though it seems that the time is ripe for working to unravel this complex construct. The publication of the revised EPAS (CSWE, 2008) invites a closer look at the profession and the social work curriculum to understand the intricacies and essential relationships between its various elements. To do the best and most intentional work of educating students to become effective practitioners and to build the capacity of the workforce, explicitly and implicitly, it is critical to develop a clear sense of what the process of professional socialization entails and to focus future research efforts accordingly. This study points to both structural and systemic influences as well as individual differences as students and practitioners develop their relationships to the culture of the profession. Building on this study and establishing conceptual clarity regarding professional socialization will allow for more systematic and focused efforts, both quantitative and qualitative, to understand the process. Because social work is clearly rooted in an ideological base, it is essential to understand the ways in which the profession as a living organism has evolved to accommodate contextual changes and ways in which ideological rigidity and conceptual lack of clarity regarding the mission of the profession may interfere with the ability to recruit and retain a capacious and effective work force.

This study points to links between personal demographic characteristics, personal experiences, exposure to professional experiences, anticipatory socialization (both manifest and latent elements), and formal education and also the effect of these elements on professional socialization to social work. These elements are all situated in the IC or EC, or in some combination of both. In gaining greater systematic understanding about the process of professional socialization, it is critical to recognize the essential intersection of classroom and field as the primary vehicle for socialization; in so doing, further opportunities to manifest this bridge between the EC and IC emerge. The better developed the profession's understanding of professional socialization becomes, the better prepared social work educators will be to facilitate the process for students and contribute intentionally to how that socialization evolves. Thus, the the profession will be better positioned to recruit and retain its practitioners.

Notes

Shari E. Miller is assistant professor and BSW program director at the University of Georgia.