https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4068-7498
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Abstract
The successful integration of Autonomous Vehicles (AVs) into daily life is influenced by various individual and contextual factors. This study examines key factors affecting acceptance and trust in AVs by assessing how interactive experiences influence user perceptions and adoption. Utilizing a Virtual Reality (VR) environment to simulate real-world driving conditions, the research investigates the impact of different levels of vehicle interaction—manual control, semi-autonomous, fully autonomous, and taxi-riding modes—on user and passenger trust, anxiety, perceived ease of use, and overall acceptance. A dual-method approach was employed, combining objective data collection through eye-tracking, which measures engagement and vigilance, with subjective user feedback gathered via the Autonomous Vehicle Acceptance Model (AVAM) questionnaire. The findings reveal a complex relationship between user control and trust in AV systems. While semi-autonomous conditions that incorporate user participation in decision-making enhance trust and intention to use, fully autonomous conditions influence trust but not intention to use significantly. However, semi- autonomous conditions also elicited higher anxiety levels compared to fully autonomous modes, suggesting a trade-off between interaction and comfort. Engagement levels, as indicated by visual metrics such as gaze patterns, were found to be critical for understanding user acceptance. These results highlight the importance of considering both subjective perceptions and objective behaviors in developing AV interfaces. The study contributes significant insights into the cognitive underpinnings of AV acceptance and underscores the need for strategies that both enhance user trust and minimize anxiety by finding an optimal balance between automation and user control. Further research into this balance is recommended to better accommodate the evolving nature of user trust and the cognitive complexities associated with semi-autonomous systems.
Acknowledgment
The authors express their appreciation to the Unity development team from the Neurobiopsychology and Neuroinformatics departments at the University of Osnabrück for their contribution to the virtual reality project. Specific thanks are given to Linus Tiemann, Nora Maleki, Johannes Maximilian Pingel, Lynn Keller, and Lea Kühne. Special recognition is given to Pingel for his hardware and data pre-processing work during his MSc thesis, co-supervised by Ashima Keshava. Marc Vidal de Palol is acknowledged for handling the questionnaire and server structure. Gratitude is also expressed to the Deutsche Museum staff in Bonn, specifically Ralph Burmester, the museum’s scientific assistant, for their support in data collection. All these individuals played instrumental roles in the success of the project.
Author contributions
SD is the leading author of this manuscript, responsible for designing, conducting, and maintaining the experiment through the data collection, as well as preprocessing the data, analyzing the results, and writing the manuscript. FNN and MAW were involved in the design, development, and maintenance of the experiment, as well as reviewing the manuscript. PK was involved in the data analysis and edited the manuscript. PK GP and AS supervised the project.
Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).
Data availability statement
The complete “LoopAR” experiment code is available on GitHub under a Creative Commons license: GitHub – Westdrive-Workgroup/LoopAR-public. Additionally, raw data, questionnaires, and analysis scripts are accessible on the OSF platform under a Creative Commons license: https://osf.io/y6fjr/?view_only=0ca71c1026bb4f9884f9547b94041170.
Additional information
Notes on contributors
Shadi Derakhshan
Shadi Derakhshan is a PhD researcher at the Department of Neurobiopsychology at the Institute of Cognitive Science, Osnabrück University, Germany. Her research primarily focuses on using computational methods to explore the cognitive mechanisms underlying human action. She specializes in studying the interactions between humans and autonomous systems.
Farbod Nosrat Nezami
Farbod Nosrat Nezami is a postdoctoral researcher in the Department of Neuroinformatics at the Institute of Cognitive Science, Osnabrück University, Germany. He specializes in human technology acceptance. He has extensive experience in web development and is proficient in technologies such as PHP, Python, and Java programming.
Maximilian Alexander Wächter
Maximilian Alexander Wächter is a PhD graduate from the Department of Neuroinformatics at the Institute of Cognitive Science, Osnabrück University, Germany. His research focuses on human interactions with artificial agents. His goal is to gain insights into human trust-building behaviors and ultimately reduce reservations about this technology.
Achim Stephan
Achim Stephan is a full professor of philosophy of cognition at the Department of Philosophy of Mind and Cognition and dean of studies from 2003 until his retirement at the University of Osnabrück, Germany. His research focus includes the philosophy of mind, particularly emergence, emotions and affectivity.
Gordon Pipa
Gordon Pipa is a full professor and head of the department of Neuroinformatics at the Institute of Cognitive Science, Osnabrück University, Germany. He studied physics with a focus on complex systems and statistical physics, holds a PhD degree in computer science and Habilitation in biology.
Peter König
Peter König is a full professor and head of the Department of Neurobiopsychology at the Institute of Cognitive Science, Osnabrück University, Germany. His research focuses on the neurophysiological basis of cognitive functions by using experimental and theoretical approaches to study sensory-motor integration in the mammalian cortex under natural conditions.