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Notes
1. See Manfredo Tafuri, Architecture and Utopia: Design and Capitalist Development (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1976); see also Felicity T. Scott, Architecture or Techno-Utopia: Politics after Modernism (Cambridge: MIT Press, 2007).
2. See Michel Foucault, Discipline and Punish: The Birth of the Prison, trans. Alan Sheridan (New York: Pantheon, 1977).
3. For the history and meaning of utopia in the cities of Latin America, see Jean-François Lejeune, ed., Cruelty and Utopia: Cities and Landscapes of Latin America (New York: Princeton Architectural Press, 2005).
4. See Thomas Schölderle, Geschichte der Utopie: Eine Einführung (Cologne: Böhlau, 2012), 10–11.
5. For a detailed account of the prehistory as well as the construction of Brasília, see Norma Evenson, Two Brazilian Capitals: Architecture and Urbanism in Rio de Janeiro and Brasília (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1973); see also Paul Claval et al., Brasilia: L'Épanouissement d'une Capitale (Paris: Picard, 2006).
6. Lúcio Costa, “Report” (1966), quoted in Styliane Philippou, Oscar Niemeyer: Curves of Irreverence (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2008), 226.
7. See Evenson, Two Brazilian Capitals (note 5), 115.
8. Quoted in Philippou, Niemeyer (note 6), 214.
9. Ibid., 213.
10. Israel Pinheiro, quoted in Philippou, Niemeyer (note 6), 215.
11. This latter interpretation was stipulated by Costa himself; see Philippou, Niemeyer (note 6), 220.
12. Ibid., 216.
13. For a thorough critical appraisal of Brasília from a sociological-anthropological point of view, see James Holston, The Modernist City: An Anthropological Critique of Brasília (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1989).
14. Commenting on the city's problematic social topography, Alan Colquhoun remarked, “Chandigarh and Brasília are both middle-class cities from which lower-paid workers, necessary for the cities' economies, are excluded. In Chandigarh … such workers are allowed to squat in the interstices of the city; in Brasília, they are banished to unplanned satellite towns from which they commute daily to work.” Alan Colquhoun, Modern Architecture (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002), 216–17.
15. See Richard J. Williams, Brazil: Modern Architectures in History (London: Reaktion, 2009), 97–98.
16. See Evenson, Two Brazilian Capitals (note 5), 165.
17. Oswald de Andrade, “Cannibalist Manifesto,” introd. and trans. Leslie Bary, Latin American Literary Review 19, no. 38 (1991): 35–47. For an excellent survey of “Antropofagia” as a major cultural force in the different arts in mid–twentieth-century Brazil, as well as a collection of fundamental texts including translations into English, see Brasil: De la Antropofagia a Brasília, 1920–1950, exh. Cat. IVAM Centre Julio González (Valencia: IVAM, 2000). See also Philippou, Niemeyer (note 6), ch. 1.
18. See de Andrade, “Manifesto” (note 17), 40. For the notion of the “carnivalesque” as a subversion of a hegemonic discourse, see the classic Mikhail Bakhtin, Rabelais and His World, trans. Helene Iswolsky (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1968). With regard to cannibalization in modern Brazilian architecture and the work of landscape architect Robert Burle Marx, see Valerie Fraser, “Cannibalizing Le Corbusier: The MES Gardens of Roberto Burle Marx,” Journal of the Society of Architectural Historians 59, no. 2 (2000): 180–93.
19. See Philippou, Niemeyer (note 6), 242.
20. Ibid., 12–13.
21. See Gilberto Freyre, The Masters and the Slaves: A Study in the Development of Brazilian Civilization, trans. Samuel Putnam (New York: Knopf, 1946).
22. See Williams, Brazil: Modern Architectures (note 15), 27–28.
23. See Holston, Modernist City (note 13), 177–78.
24. See Williams, Brazil: Modern Architectures (note 15), 28.
25. See Iwan Baan, Brasília–Chandigarh: Living with Modernity (Baden: Lars Müller Publishers, 2010).