Corporate Marketing Objectives and Evaluation Measures for Integrated Television Advertising and Sports Event Sponsorships

Abstract

To determine how integrated TV advertising and event sponsorship should be evaluated, a theoretical framework derived from global exploratory research of academic literature and consulting reports of more than 50 authors was validated by 16 experts. To investigate how evaluation was managed in practice, 12 campaigns which had sponsored a televised event and placed advertisements during the broadcast of this event were analyzed via case studies. The investigated competitions included the Wimbledon Tennis Tournament in London and the Olympic Games in Sydney. The examined brands comprised automotive, financial services, retail chain, office equipment, and consumer goods. The study identified the key techniques that lead to increased corporate sales—four objectives and necessary performance measures, which could be useful to all executives promoting brands through televised sport.

KEYWORDS:

• advertising
• corporate sponsorships
• event marketing
• integrated marketing communications
• Olympics
• sport
• television
• Wimbledon Tennis Tournament

INTRODUCTION

Mansourpour (2007) points out “Sports sponsorship is a tool used increasingly by corporations to generate awareness, alter attitudes and attempt to influence consumer behaviour patterns. It is able to cut through clutter effectively, target specific consumer segments, and to generate beneficial consumer effects. These aspects have meant that as an element of the promotional mix, sports sponsorship is becoming an important practice to a wider selection of firms.”

But at a time of increasingly competitive and sophisticated corporate marketing through televised sporting events and a growing concern about the return on investment it provides (Lawson, 2002), the management and evaluation of corporate event sponsorship and advertising through sport still requires better understanding (Olkkonen, 2001; Farrelly, 2002; Cliffe & Motion, 2005). A number of authors have suggested that one best practice was to “integrate” event sponsorship with advertising, and indicated that further research was needed to investigate how such integration should be managed and evaluated (Quester & Thompson, 2001; Farrelly, 2002; Shimp, 2003). More recently, Sylvestre and Moutinho (2008) indicated sports sponsors are viewed as being more effective in conveying messages, not only because of the size and variety of the audience, but because of the resources that they have at their disposal.

Some companies currently pay tens of millions of dollars for the sponsorship of one major televised event, e.g. the Olympic Games or the Australian Tennis Open (Mellish, 2000; Stensholt, 2003; Spais & Filis, 2006a, 2006b), and they also spend tens of millions on television advertising during these events, e.g., the Olympic Games or the annual Super Bowl football championship game in the United States (Mellish, 2000; Collins, 2003; O'Reilly, McCarthy, Séguin, & Lyberger, 2005; Papadimitriou, Apostolopoulou, & Dounis, 2008).

Despite the increasing importance of integrated sponsorship and advertising as a tool for corporate marketing, conventional TV advertising methods and their evaluation are more developed than the corresponding event sponsorship practices (Shimp, 2000; Farrelly, 2002; Lane, King, & Russell, 2008; Papadimitriou et al., 2008). An estimated 70% of traditional broadcast media campaigns are evaluated, whereas only 28% of sponsorships are measured (S:COMM Research, 2003). The problem of effective evaluation of such campaigns is a key part of the present study.

Many best practice marketing campaigns now link advertising and sponsorship messages (Shannon, 1999; Stamler, 2002). For example, advertising and sponsorship by Fosters using the AFL 2000 Grand Final of Australian Rules football were integrated around the company's positioning message—“I believe.” During commercial breaks in the game broadcast, Fosters—a beer producing company—showed commercials which utilized football images bonded with the event and, together with football-related messages, used the corporate positioning tagline: “I play football without a helmet. I believe.” The message was followed by the corporate logo as it appears on Fosters beer bottles. The same messages and the logo were displayed on the most exposed spots of the event ground—behind the gates, and behind the goal umpire on whom cameras focused as he registered each goal.

Meenaghan (2002) pointed out that the communication objectives of advertising and sponsorship are similar. The two media are in some respects interdependent, and when integrated, the effectiveness of both relies on the support of each other. Just like advertising campaigns, sponsorships of televised events have to be carefully designed, planned, executed, and measured (Rossiter & Percy, 1997; Farrelly, 2002). This is particularly important when sponsorships and advertising are integrated, as both can share design, execution, and measurement.

The literature indicated that the different strengths of advertising and sponsorship should be used to achieve common objectives of the two media (Meenaghan, 2002). The persuasive strength of sponsorship lies in its ability to convey the commercial message and influence the consumer in a more voluntary fashion than the standard advertising sell. The corporate message can be received in a more positive light when the company responsible is seen as a supporter of the sporting event that the individual values. This effect may be particularly strong among followers of the sponsored event and sport. However, successful translation of this “positive light” or “rub-off” from images of sporting events, stars, and properties into an enhanced sponsor's brand image and the achievement of other corporate objectives necessitates effective integration of sponsorship with conventional advertising (Farrelly, 2002).

The strength of a conventional advertisement is in its propensity to send a direct and specific message. Sponsorship of an event, on the other hand, gives an opportunity to indirectly deliver a message, e.g., increase brand awareness and enhance brand image which could lead to raised sales. Also, in non-sales environments (e.g., the “Quit smoking” campaign) both media can contribute to changing the attitudes and behavior of sports viewers. The unique properties of the two media offer synergistic opportunities that are not available when employed separately.

It was clear from the literature that the major event sponsorship investment is reliant on support from other forms of promotions, primarily television advertising. It was also clear that sponsorship should be developed and evaluated together with advertising. However, it yet has to be explained how the integration should be achieved, in terms of management and evaluation. This study attempted to discover the criteria that can be used for objectives and measures of integrated advertising and sponsorship and how practitioners actually use these criteria.

THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

A number of authors agreed that general advertising objectives and measures should be employed for major event sponsorship (Farrelly, 1995, Hansen & Scotwin, 1995; Arthur, Scott, Woods & Booker, 1998; Rossiter, 1999; Farelly, 2002; Meenaghan, 2002). In essence, these authors recommended that sport sponsorship objectives and measures (like advertising objectives and measures) be based on consumer behavior steps. The following steps guide the consumers along the way from being exposed to the promotional message to changing attitudes and behavior (Rossiter & Percy 1997; Percy, Rossiter & Elliott, 2001; Belch & Belch, 2009):

1. Exposing the target market to the promotional message through media coverage is an important advertising and event sponsorship objective and measure (Meenaghan, 2002; Belch & Belch, 2009). Examples of exposure-related objectives are increased target market via television coverage (Irwin & Sutton, 1994; Arthur, Woods & Scott, 2000); audience profile and size determined and targeted (Arthur et al., 2000); media exposure or increased media exposure (Farrelly, 1995; Cheng, 2000); audience demographic fit (Grdovic, 1992); cost per target market (Grdovic, 1992); gain in media coverage (Grdovic, 1992); exposure in seconds on television (Hansen & Scotwin, 1995); TV as a cost-efficient alternative exposure (Hirons, 1990); an opportunity to reposition a brand to alter target market (Hirons, 1990); demographic profile of immediate or extended audience (Irwin, Assimakopoulas & Sutton, 1994); overcoming communication barriers by targeting markets in non-commercial situations (Kuzin & Kutepov, 1994); increased frequency and quality of contacts with target markets (Kuzin & Kutepov, 1994); TV or media coverage (McDonald, 1991); level of media coverage and exposures gained (Meenaghan, 1983, 1991, 2002); coverage of the target audience (Meenaghan, 1983, 1991, 2002); increased television, press, and radio coverage/exposure (Quester, 1995; Shilbury, Quick & Westerbeek, 2003); and targeting new market segments (Shilbury et al., 2003).

2. Making target markets aware of the promotional message, sponsoring company, brand, and product are important advertising and event sponsorship objectives (Hoek, 1999; Rossiter, 1999; Hal Dean, 2002; Meenaghan, 2002; Berkes & Nyerges, 2004; Berkes, Nyerges, & Váczi, 2008; Belch & Belch, 2009). Awareness-related goals comprise a linking of the sponsor's name to the property (Arthur et al., 2000); creation of brand awareness or an increase in brand or product awareness (Hirons, 1990; Kuzma, 1990; Irwin & Sutton, 1994; Kuzin & Kutepov, 1994; Farrelly, 1995; Quester, 1995; Cheng, 2000; Shilbury et al., 2003); awareness of the event, awareness that the event is sponsored, awareness of the event sponsor (Grdovic, 1992); pre- and post-event product awareness (Grdovic, 1992), increased company awareness (Kuzma,); awareness as a possible sponsorship measurement point (Meenaghan, 2002); and increased public and target market awareness (Thwaites & Carruthers, 1998). The study's theoretical framework takes into account the fact that event sponsorship makes a wider audience aware of the promoted brand, targeting live event audiences as well as TV viewers (S:COMM Research, 2003). Effective integration may allow TV advertising to increase brand awareness among live audiences who also watch TV broadcasts, reinforcing the messages displayed at the venue.

3. Changing or enhancing the brand image in target markets’ minds and developing a disposition to change behavior towards buying the promoted brand is the basic reason for event sponsorship (Rossiter, 1999). The image-related objectives and measures include “clean image” (McDonald, 1991; Arthur et al., 2000); “improved” or “enhanced” company or product image (Hirons, 1990; Kuzma, 1990; Grdovic, 1992; Irwin & Sutton, 1994; Smolianov, 1994; Farrelly, 1995; Quester, 1995; Thwaites & Carruthers, 1998; Hal Dean, 2002; Meenaghan, 2002; Smolianov & Shilbury, 2005); an image to provide a company/market fit (Irwin et al., 1994); a “changed” image (Kuzin & Kutepov, 1994); an image as a possible sponsorship measurement point (Meenaghan, 2002); an image creation and improvement (Shilbury et al., 2003); and enhancement of the company's image with employees (White & Mazur, 1995). Both event sponsorship and advertising contribute to an enhanced brand image (Rossiter, 1999), but sponsorship functions in a different manner to advertising and other forms of promotion (Meenaghan, 2001).

   As Meenaghan (2001) argued, sponsorship engages the consumer by the fact that the event sponsored in sports can be one with which the consumer has an intense emotional relationship, a quality which is apparent in sports fans and sport enthusiasts generally. This intensity of relationship of the consumer with the sport can help explain the concepts of goodwill, perceptions of benefit, and image transfer, which can result in a positive consumer response to the brand or product. Image transfer alone represents an important sponsorship objective (Meenaghan, 2001). Apart from influencing target sports audiences who are TV viewers, the sponsorship of the event can also affect the broader audience of the sponsored activity (Meenaghan, 2002). Sponsership may include the sponsor's employees and business clients targeted through event hospitality guests programs and staff participation programs as part of event sponsorship (Meenaghan, 1983, 1991; Farrelly, 1995; White & Mazur, 1995; Thwaites & Carruthers, 1998; Arthur et al., 2000).

4. Changing target markets’ behavior, such as increasing use or sales of the promoted brand is the ultimate aim of advertising and sponsorship (Hoek, 1999; Meenaghan, 2002). The sales-related objectives and measures include increased sales, and short-term and long-term sales (Farrelly, 1995; Grdovic, 1992; Kuzma, 1990; Smolianov, 1994; Quester, 1995; Arthur et al., 2000; Shilbury et al., 2003; Smolianov & Shilbury, 2005); sales in general (Meenaghan, 1983, 1991; Thwaites & Carruthers, 1998; Cheng, 2000; Meenaghan, 2002); improvement in market share (Irwin & Sutton, 1994; Hansen & Scotwin, 1995); generation of sales (Grdovic, 1992); support product sales, increased sales among mass consumer groups by promoting products through athletes who influence public opinion (Kuzin & Kutepov, 1994); increased sales among recreational users (Kuzin & Kutepov, 1994); quantifiably increased sales (Stotlar, 1998); and benefits of social marketing (O'Reilly & Madill, 2007). Without the incorporation of behavioral measures such as sales or brand usage into the study's sponsorship and advertising management framework, evaluation would remain limited to an investigation of awareness, attitudes (image), and possibly preferences, with no understanding of the relationship between these variables and consumer behavior. According to Quester and Thompson (2001), adoption of an evaluation framework based on behavioral measures could help to minimize the possibility that investment in sponsorship is simply a magnanimous but empty gesture.

METHOD

The methods of this study were determined taking into account the suggestions made by Farrelly (1995), Meenaghan (1999) and Olkkonen (2001). Meenaghan (1999) recommended investigating corporate sport marketing practices by using a qualitative methodology, noting that many previous studies were based on surveys of sponsorship decision makers. Meenaghan was of the opinion that these replications meant declining returns in terms of improved understanding, and that usage of highly structured survey instruments imposed a researcher's view of practice. Farrelly (1995) indicated the need for both qualitative and exploratory research, arguing that the lack of flexibility in previous survey methodology resulted in some conflicting evidence about sport marketing and sponsorship management. Olkkonen (2001) concluded from his analysis of literature that most of current sponsorship research shows a need for further development of theoretical frameworks and research designs that would allow a deeper, action-oriented understanding of this field of interest.

The measures identified through exploratory research and theoretical reasoning were validated through discussions with experts to modify the framework and to finalize the questions for interviews with practitioners.

Expert Validation

Validation of the theoretical framework was conducted through two series of semi-structured surveys and interviews with 16 sport marketing experts. The responses were based on the televised sporting events which the experts managed and/or evaluated. Panel members with the following experience were selected:

• Executives whose primary job was to manage and/or evaluate corporate marketing campaigns through televised sporting events—this status was ensured by examining the relevance of respondents’ responsibilities and the relevance of the organization for which they worked.

• Academics specializing in sport marketing—their experience was ensured by examining respondents’ books or publications in refereed editions on sport marketing management or evaluation.

In addition, the questionnaire/interview guide ensured that the experts had experience with campaigns of integrated advertising and sponsorship. It was difficult to find the experts, as truly integrated marketing communication is still the exception rather than the rule (Percy et al., 2001). The recruitment stopped after 16 experts were found. This was considered an acceptable number similar to the panel sizes used by other expert-based studies (e.g., Meenaghan, 1994; Richards, 2002).

To warrant safety in numbers and representativeness of the key industry players on the expert panel, the validation was conducted with: 3 academics, 2 advertising firm consultants, 3 corporate marketing/sponsorship/ advertising executives, 2 marketing firm consultants, 2 market research firm consultants, and 4 sport marketing/advertising firm consultants.

The identified management practices were assessed and discussed with experts using a series of self-administered email and fax questionnaires followed by face-to-face and telephone interviews. The questionnaires were designed so that they could be completed and returned both electronically and in writing, and used as discussion guides for the follow-up interviews.

Case Studies

The qualitative case study approach based on semi-structured in-depth interviews was selected to obtain information with minimum bias and to ensure that all the key areas of integration were discussed.

As it was important for the current research to test the constructed theoretical framework by observing the results of multiple cases and obtain comparative data on these cases, a “collective” case study approach was chosen, involving 12 cases.

The first selection criterion was that each of these campaigns had to sponsor a televised event and to place advertisements during the broadcast of this event. Secondly, the campaigns had to promote various types of brands which included sporting apparel, fast-moving goods for consumer and business markets (car petrol and engine oil), consumer durables (cars, watches), consumer services (investment and banking), business and home products (office equipment), and public services. Thirdly, the selected campaigns had to promote the brands through various types of sports—professional and amateur, team and individual, technical (car races) and physical (triathlon), and through various event types—single- and multi-event competition series, national and international.

To select campaigns for the analysis, the lead author videotaped and observed broadcasts of sporting events on Australian television channels during 1998–2000. The events of the selected and analyzed campaigns included the Grand Final of Australian Rules Football, Melbourne, 2000; the Olympic Games 2000, Sydney; and the Wimbledon Tennis Championships, London, 2000. Events containing the brand names or making the brands recognizable are not mentioned here for confidentiality reasons. Some respondents were concerned that information about their companies might be revealed to competitors.

The minimum requirement of each case study was to conduct two interviews—one with an internal respondent from the promoted corporation, and a second with an external respondent from the advertising agency, event management organization, market research firm, or television channel who worked to promote the analyzed corporation. In addition, other professionals involved in the analyzed campaigns were interviewed. Respondents of 12 case studies comprised 12 internal corporate executives (including 5 corporate marketing managers, 4 corporate advertising managers, and 3 corporate sponsorship managers) and 12 external executives (including 8 advertising firm executives, 2 event producers, 1 market research firm executive, and 1 television channel executive). Additional information was obtained through telephone and email discussions with two corporate sponsorship managers and one advertising firm executive.

The 12 case studies were based on observations of broadcasts, interviews with practitioners, secondary data, and internal corporate documents. Discussion guides were emailed or faxed to practitioners prior to the interviews. Respondents emailed or faxed back their initial responses, which were then discussed during the interviews. Therefore, data were obtained from the practitioners’ written responses as well as through the interviews. Interviews were tape-recorded where possible and when permitted.

RESULTS

Table 1 shows how the campaign objectives criteria were rated by the experts and used by practitioners. Sixteen experts indicated the average importance levels of the campaign evaluation criteria on a 4-point scale, and 24 practitioners indicated the number of their campaigns out of 12 which used objectives based on the relative criteria to manage TV advertising and event sponsorship, in integration.

TABLE 1 Relative Importance of Corporate Sport Marketing Campaign Objectives Criteria According to 16 Experts and Campaigns Which Used Objectives Based on These Criteria

Objectives criteria	Mean importance (16 experts)	Std. deviation (16 experts)	Campaigns (24 practitioners)
Exposure, which occurs when advertisement and sponsorship signage are placed in the media that reaches target audience, measured by size of this audience and by number of promotional messages	2.9	0.8	10 campaigns: office equipment, petrol, 5 consumer durables, engine oil, retail chain, government, financial services
Processing, or target market's response to the advertisement and sponsorship messages, measured by recognition and recall of the promoted message, media and brand	3.4	0.6	9 campaigns: office equipment, petrol, 3 consumer durables, engine oil, retail chain, apparel, financial services
Communication effects, measured through attitude and intention to purchase the promoted brand	3.8	0.4	8 campaigns: office equipment, petrol, 2 consumer durables, engine oil, retail chain, apparel, financial services
Target audience action, sales or market share and profit, which are measures of changed behavior or increased purchases of the promoted brand	3.3	0.9	7 campaigns: petrol, 2 consumer durables, engine oil, retail chain, apparel, financial services

The practitioners’ level of objectives use was not consistent with the experts’ level of importance of the objectives for integrated advertising and sponsorship:

• 8 of the 12 analyzed campaigns used communication effects objectives indicated by the experts to be the most important (3.8 on a 4-point scale);

• 10 campaigns used exposure objectives, rated to be the least important by the experts (2.9 on a 4-point scale).

The experts indicated in open discussions that it is necessary to utilize all four criteria in sequence, as stated in the following quote:

These four objectives are sort of incremental. You need exposure to have awareness and then you need awareness for attitude change and then attitude change for action. So in that sense all four issues are equally important, in fact they are necessary but not sufficient and only the 4th one is the proof of the pudding but is hard to measure because of confounding variables.

This opinion was consistent with the practitioners’ level of objectives use. Consistency was also found between the analyzed campaigns and consumer behavior theory:

• The largest number (10) of the analyzed campaigns set, measured, and achieved the objectives of exposure—the first stage of consumer buying behavior.

• 9 campaigns used objectives of the second buyer behavior stage—processing.

• 8 campaigns set and measured objectives of the third buying stage—communication effects.

• 7 campaigns were able to measure and reach the final buying stage of target audience action.

The experts pointed out that only the most developed campaigns utilized the necessary objectives and measures:

All four criteria are important, but not all companies monitor and comprehensively measure each event and TV show. Measuring impact on the target audience over many months and many events, companies often are not evaluating each particular event or campaign against all important measures. For many companies the primary basis for evaluation is simply the cost of being within a televised event versus the cost of buying standard TV advertising.

The interviews with the 24 practitioners showed that 6 of the 12 analyzed campaigns which had set and measured all four objectives of exposure, processing, communication effects, and audience action, achieved these objectives and increased sales or usage of the promoted brands.

The key objectives of the integrated advertisements and sponsorship promoting a retail chain were to add credibility to the brand through association with the sponsored property and to increase retail sales. Pre-campaign benchmarks were established to measure achievement of the objectives: a set percentage increase on previous year's sales over same period, percentage increase on brand awareness, maintenance (as a minimum) of planned TARP levels, and brand attitude levels. Football suited the researched market well; the objectives and the ‘creative’ were easy to match to the sponsorship. The campaign achieved its TARPs (exposure), brand awareness (processing), brand attitude (communication effects) and sales (consumer action) objectives. Sales and brand awareness increased strongly over the event period.

The objectives of a campaign promoting a car brand through integrated advertising and sponsorship of multi-stage car races were: to launch a new car model, achieve a low cost per thousand of the target market/s reached, and provide a national, relevant platform for a new product launch. Pre-campaign benchmarks were recorded and objectives were measured against the “hard figures” of cost-per-thousand, reach, frequency, and sales. “Soft” attitudinal survey measures were also used. The results on achieved objectives indicated that the target of sales was exceeded. A new car model was launched into the market effectively and the promoted limited edition vehicles sold out. The reach figure into the target market of the promoted model and the message frequency figure were both high.

In contrast, three analyzed campaigns did not set objectives and evaluate advertising and sponsorship in integration: two campaigns (by a car manufacturer and a governmental organization) accomplished only one of the four objectives (exposure); and a consumer brand campaign did not demonstrate achievement of any goals, confirming the experts’ opinion that to achieve the ultimate aim, campaigns should be fully integrated and properly measured.

Sales should be used to track campaign performance. There are not many sport marketing campaigns which compete at this level and which are able to utilize all the integration steps and appropriate methods of campaign evaluation.

Increased sales can only be achieved if a campaign can expose the brand message to target audiences, change the target markets’ attitudes toward the brand, and make them want to buy it. One organization of the 12-analyzed aimed not to sell products, but to reduce drunk driving. Such campaigns also require the firm to expose the message to the target audience, change the audience attitude, and convince it to take a desired action. Therefore, the following key objectives of integrated advertising and sponsorship should be set during strategy development and measured after the campaign is launched:

1. To increase exposure which occurs when advertising and sponsorship messages are placed in the media that reach the target audience. Exposure is measured by the size of the audience of television viewers or Target Audience Rating Points, and the number of event spectators and sport followers. The data are obtained through consolidated people meters by research companies such as ACNielsen and through customized material from media monitoring agencies.

2. To enhance processing which is the target markets’ response to the advertisement or sponsorship message. Processing is measured by the percentage of target markets who are aware of, and who recall and recognize the promoted message, brand, advertisement, and sponsored event. The data are obtained through customized consumer surveys by market research agencies.

3. To enhance communication effects which are measured through the target markets’ desired attitudes, brand image in their minds and intention to take a desired action or purchase the promoted brand. Improved client and employee relations and their perception of brand image are measures specific to sponsorship alone. The data are obtained through customized consumer surveys by market research agencies as well as internal corporate client and employee surveys.

4. To change or increase target audience action, sale, or use of the promoted brand, which is the ultimate bottom-line for integrated advertising and sponsorship. Target audience action, or consumer action, is measured through the percentage of target markets performing the desired action, through product or service sales, market share, or number of customers. The data are obtained through internal sales system, customer database, as well as through customized surveys by market research agencies. The surveys reveal brand usage and market share through the percentage of consumers indicating use of the promoted brand or service.

Integrated TV advertising and major event sponsorship influence target markets mainly through TV audiences. However, it is also important to use objectives specific to event sponsorship, such as its ability to affect live event spectators, participants, and hospitality guests, including sponsor's business clients and employees. Integrated campaigns may also enable TV commercials to target these audiences, e.g., a financial services company featuring its employees in commercials to improve the corporate brand image among staff, and a sports apparel producer featuring event participants in commercials integrated with the sponsorship of the 2000 Olympics. By doing so, advertisements effectively convey the link between the event and sponsor brands and assist sponsorship to pass the event brand image to the image of the sponsor's brand, ensuring achievement of processing and communication effect objectives.

The results of this study suggested that well-managed and achieving campaigns use their primary corporate goals (e.g., increased sales) within the set of objectives reflecting the process of consumer buying behavior rather than in isolation. The need for systematic and sequential use of buying behavior objectives is consistent with recent recommendations (e.g., Meenaghan, 2002; S:COMM Research, 2003; Mansourpour, 2007) and is a modification of earlier findings which stressed that corporate sport marketing objectives are highly variable, contingent, and situation-specific (Hirons, 1990; Kuzin & Kutepov, 1994; Quester, 1995).

Different words used for describing the same objectives seem to cause misunderstanding within the industry and create an impression that common sport marketing objectives do not exist.

The objective of processing, or consumer response to the promoted message, was generally described as “awareness” of a brand or advertising or sponsorship, but also was categorized as “advertising and sponsorship recall.” Communication effects objectives of improved image or attitude of the promoted brand among the consumers were described as “brand image,” and as “consumer attitude.”

The results of this study showed that, despite differences in terminology, any objective used by any sport marketing industry personnel to develop, implement, and evaluate corporate marketing campaigns through televised sport can be classified as one of four criteria: exposure, processing, communication effects, and consumer action.