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Empirical Papers

Processes of change in cognitive behavioral therapy for treatment-resistant depression: psychological flexibility, rumination, avoidance, and emotional processing

ORCID Icon, , , , &
Pages 983-997 | Received 04 Jun 2019, Accepted 21 Nov 2019, Published online: 10 Dec 2019
 

Abstract

Recent clinical research suggests that facilitating psychological flexibility and emotional processing and decreasing rumination and avoidance are important tasks of treatment for disorders characterized by entrenched patterns of psychopathology, such as major depressive disorder. The current study examined these processes as predictors of treatment outcomes in a subsample of depressed adult patients (n = 49) who had not fully responded to antidepressant medication and were randomized to receive cognitive–behavioral therapy (CBT). Target variables were coded from session recordings at baseline and in the vicinity of two therapeutic transition points: a sudden gain (improvement) and a transient spike in depression symptoms, or at similar periods for those without such transitions. Results indicated that psychological flexibility during the pre-sudden gain period predicted less depression at 12-month follow-up, beyond baseline symptoms and other co-occurring processes. Interaction analyses revealed that when flexibility was low during the post-spike period, avoidance and rumination predicted higher depressive symptoms, whereas emotional processing predicted lower symptoms at the 12-month follow-up. When flexibility was high, none of these variables were associated with outcome. Together, these findings highlight psychological flexibility as a key therapeutic target in CBT for treatment-resistant depression and might have implications for relapse prevention.

摘要 近期臨床研究顯示,要治療那些具備根深蒂固精神病理模式的疾病,如重鬱症,促進其心理彈性和情緒處理能力,以及減少反芻和逃避是重要的任務。本研究以憂鬱症成年病人(n = 49)的子樣本,來檢視這些歷程,作為治療結果的預測指標,這些病人對於抗憂鬱藥物沒有完全反應,他們被隨機分派接受認知行為治療(CBT)。從基準線和兩個治療過渡點附近的對話紀錄中來編碼標的變項:憂鬱症狀的突然收穫(改善)和短暫高峰,或者在類似的時間點但是沒有這種過渡的病人。結果顯示,在突如其來的收穫期間,若能有心理彈性,可預測在後續 12 個月的追蹤訪談中憂鬱症狀的減低、比較沒有超出基準線的症狀及其他同時發生的歷程。透過互動分析顯示,在後高峰期,若心理彈性較低,則其逃避與反芻可預測較多的憂鬱症狀,而情緒處理則可預測在 12 個月的追蹤訪談中較低的症狀。當彈性高時, 這些變項都與結果無關。這些發現共同強調,以 CBT 治療難治性憂鬱症,心理彈性是關鍵的治療目標,並且可能對於預防復發具有影響力。

Investigação clínica recente sugere que facilitar a flexibilidade psicológica e o processamento emocional e reduzir a ruminação e evitamento são tarefas de tratamento importantes para as perturbações caracterizadas por padrões de psicopatologia fortemente estabelecidos, tais como, a perturbação depressiva major. O presente estudo examinou estes processos enquanto preditores dos resultados do tratamento numa subamostra de pacientes adultos deprimidos (n=49) que não responderam completamente à medicação antidepressiva e foram aleatorizados para receber terapia cognitivo-comportamental (TCC). Variáveis alvo foram codificadas a partir das gravações das sessões no início do estudo e na vizinhança de dois pontos de transição terapêutica: um ganho súbito (melhoria) e um pico transitório nos sintomas depressivos, ou em períodos semelhantes a esses sem tais transições. Os resultados indicam que a flexibilidade psicológica durante o período pré-ganho súbito prediz menor depressão no follow-up de 12 meses, para além dos sintomas iniciais e outros processos concomitantes. Análises de interação revelaram que quando a flexibilidade estava baixa durante o período pós-pico, o evitamento e a ruminação prediziam sintomas depressivos mais elevados, enquanto o processamento emocional predizia menos sintomas no follow-up de 12 meses. Quando a flexibilidade era elevada, nenhuma destas variáveis estava associada com o resultado. Em conjunto, estes resultados salientam a flexibilidade psicológica como um alvo terapêutico chave na TCC para a depressão resistente ao tratamento e podem ter implicações para a prevenção de recaída.

Recenti ricerche cliniche suggeriscono che facilitare la flessibilità psicologica e l'elaborazione emotiva e diminuire la ruminazione e l'evitamento sono compiti importanti del trattamento per i disturbi caratterizzati da schemi psicopatologici radicati, come il disturbo depressivo maggiore. L'attuale studio ha esaminato questi processi come predittori degli esiti del trattamento in un sottocampione di pazienti adulti depressi (n = 49) che non avevano risposto completamente ai farmaci antidepressivi e sono stati randomizzati a ricevere la terapia cognitivo-comportamentale (CBT). Le variabili target sono state codificate dalle registrazioni della sessione alla baseline e in prossimità di due punti di transizione terapeutica: un aumento improvviso (miglioramento) e un picco transitorio nei sintomi della depressione, o in periodi simili per coloro che non hanno tali transizioni. I risultati hanno indicato che la flessibilità psicologica durante il periodo di pre-aumento improvviso prediceva meno depressione al follow-up di 12 mesi, oltre i sintomi di baseline e altri processi concomitanti. Le analisi di interazione hanno rivelato che quando la flessibilità era bassa durante il periodo post-picco, l'evitamento e la ruminazione predicevano sintomi depressivi più elevati, mentre l'elaborazione emotiva prediceva sintomi più bassi al follow-up di 12 mesi. Quando la flessibilità era elevata, nessuna di queste variabili era associata al risultato. Insieme, questi risultati evidenziano la flessibilità psicologica come obiettivo terapeutico chiave nella CBT per la depressione resistente al trattamento e potrebbero avere implicazioni per la prevenzione delle ricadute.

Acknowledgements

The views expressed in this article are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect those of the HTA program, NIHR, NHS, or the Department of Health. The CoBalT study received support from the Department of Health and local Primary Care Trusts and NHS Greater Glasgow and Clyde Health Board in meeting the excess treatment and service support costs associated with the trial. The Mental Health Research Network (MHRN), Scottish Mental Health Research Network (SMHRN), Primary Care Research Network (PCRN) and Scottish Primary Care Research Network (SPCRN) all provided additional support with the conduct of the CoBalT trial. We would also like to thank those colleagues who contributed to the CoBalT study, through recruitment and retention of patients, provision of administrative support, or delivery/supervision of therapy. We are grateful to a number of colleagues who were involved with the CoBalT study as co-applicants but have not participated in drafting this article: Nicola Wiles, Glyn Lewis, Debbie Sharp, Tim Peters, David Kessler, Sandra Hollinghurst, Katrina Turner, Bill Jerrom, John Campbell, Jill Morrison, and Chris Williams. We would also like to thank Elizabeth Alpert, Leigh Andrews, Jessica Goodnight, and Jessica Maples-Keller for their suggestions and comments on the manuscript.

Disclosure statement

The authors report no conflict of interest.

Notes

1 Due to high levels of intercorrelation, all regression analyses were examined for multicollinearity; all were below the recommended limits (VIF < 10, tolerance > 0.1; Field, Citation2009).

2 Following Aiken and West’s (Citation1991) guidelines for interaction analyses, all predictor variables were mean-centered for these and subsequent analyses.

Additional information

Funding

The study was embedded in the CoBalT study, which was funded by the National Institute for Health Research Health Technology Assessment Programme (NIHR HTA) (project 06/404/02).

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