“Punk” Use of Video in Latin America: Audiovisual Resistance and Rebellious Youth in Chile and Uruguay

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Notes

1. Unless otherwise noted, all translations to English are by the authors.

2. Berko, “Video: In Search of a Discourse” in Quarterly Review of Film Studies, 293.

3. Chanan, “The Changing Geography of Third Cinema” in Screen, 383.

4. Di Tella, “Video in Latin America” in Review: Latin American Literature and Arts, 43.

5. Ibid.

6. Aufderheide, “Grassroots Video in Latin America”, in Visible Nations: Latin American Cinema and Video, 219.

7. Ibid.

8. See, for example, Dinamarca, El Video en América Latina: Actor Innovador del Espacio Audiovisual, 188–189, and Liñero Arend Apuntes Para una Historia del Video en Chile, 114–115. For information about New Latin American Cinema, see Burton, The Social Documentary; King, Magical Reels: A History of Cinema in Latin America; and Pick, The New Latin American Cinema: A Continental Project.

9. Dinamarca, El Video, 188–189, and Liñero Arend, Apuntes, 114–115.

10. Aufderheide, “Latin American Cinema and the Rhetoric of Cultural Nationalism: Controversies at Havana in 1987 and 1989” in Quarterly Review of Film and Video, 66–70.

11. Liñero Arend, Apuntes, 115–117.

12. Dinamarca, El Video, 196.

13. Liñero Arend, Apuntes, 118.

14. Dinamarca, El Video, 199–200; Liñero Arend, Apuntes, 118.

15. For an analysis of these discussions, see Dinamarca, El Video, 195–200.

16. Dinamarca, El Video, 200.

17. Liñero Arend, Apuntes, 23–26; 48–66; 132–135.

18. Whereas CEMA was funded by young men who were just starting their careers as video-makers, Imágenes was funded by experienced and militant filmmakers, Mario Jacob and Walter Tournier, when they returned from exile.

19. Traverso and Liñero, “Chilean Political Documentary Video of the 1980s”, in New Documentaries in Latin America, 174; Martin-Jones and Montañez, “Cinema in Progress: New Uruguayan Cinema” in Screen, 335.

20. Interview with Gonzalo Justiniano conducted by co-author Dr. Elizabeth Ramírez Soto, December 4, 2012.

21. Interview with Esteban Schroeder conducted by co-author Dr. Beatriz Tadeo Fuica, February 7, 2011.

22. Interview with Guillermo Casanova conducted by co-author Dr. Beatriz Tadeo Fuica, September 30, 2011.

23. In the context of Spain, Nuria Triana-Toribio has similarly related Pedro Almodovar's aesthetic break with the work of other filmmakers in the context of the Spanish “movida”. See Nuria Triana-Toribio, “A Punk Called Pedro: la Movida in the Films of Pedro Almodovar”, in Contemporary Spanish Cultural Studies, 277.

24. Trigo, “The Politics and Anti-Politics of Uruguayan Rock”, in Rockin’ Las Américas: The Global Politics of Rock in Latin/o America, 116–117.

25. Pacini Hernández, Fernández-L'Hoeste, and Zolov, “Mapping Rock Music Cultures Across the Americas”, in Rockin’ Las Américas, 5.

26. For general accounts on the cinema developed during the Popular Unity, Mouesca, Plano Secuencia de la Memoria de Chile: Veinticinco Años de Cine Chileno 1960–1985, 49–87, and, more recently, Barría, El Espejo Quebrado: Memorias del Cine de Allende y la Unidad Popular.

27. Traverso and Liñero, Chilean Political Documentary, 169.

28. Interview with Gonzalo Justiniano conducted by co-author Dr. Elizabeth Ramírez Soto, December 4, 2012.

29. On these filmic returns from exile, see Ramírez Soto, “Journeys of Desexilio: the bridge between the past and the present”, in Rethinking History: The Journal of Theory and Practice, and Palacios, “Chilean Exile Cinema and its Homecoming Documentaries”, in Cinematic Homecomings: Exile and Return in Transnational Cinema.

30. “Gonzalo Justiniano on Children of the Cold War”, trans. Michelle Burgos, in Internal Exile: New Films and Videos from Chile, 10.

31. Fusco, “Internal Exile: An Introduction” in Internal Exile: New Films and Videos from Chile, 6.

32. Galaz, “Punks: Los hijos de Pinochet”, in Revista La Bicicleta, 3.

33. Salas Zúniga, La Primavera Terrestre: Cartografias del Rock Chileno y la Nueva Canción Chilena, 207. The origins of punk could be traced back to London in 1976. See Hebdige, Subculture: The Meaning of Style, 23–26; Lewis, The Road to Romance & Ruin: Teen Films and Youth Culture, 105.

34. Zúniga, La Primavera Terrestre, 207.

35. Ibid.

36. Ibid.

37. Stella Bruzzi, New Documentary, 187.

38. As Arcelia Salome López-Cabello points out in a study of Mexican punk, using punk clothes was one of the ways in which the punk discourse was materialized. See López-Cabello, “La Música Punk Como Espacio Identitario y de Formación en Jóvenes de México”, in Revista Latinoamericana de Ciencias Sociales, Niñez y Juventud, 187.

39. Landsberg, “Prosthetic Memory: Total Recall and Blade Runner”, in Body and Society, 175–189.

40. “Gonzalo Justiniano on Children of the Cold War”, 10.

41. Richard, Nelly, “Dismantlings of Identity, Perversions of Codes”, in Cultural Residues: Chile in Transition, 81 (emphasis in the original).

42. Ibid, 74.

43. Walser, Running with the Devil: Power, Gender, and Madness in Heavy Metal Music, xvii.

44. Mattern, “Popular music and redemocratization in Santiago, Chile 1973-1989”, Studies in Latin American Popular Culture, 109.

45. The video documentary Yo era de un lugar que en realidad no existía (I am From a Place Which Does Not Actually Exist [Kristina Honrad, 1988]) deals with the arrival of exiles and their first impressions in a country which they did not know or could not recognize any longer.

46. For more information on this decade, see Leandro Delgado, Ed., “Cultura y comunicación en los ochenta,” Cuaderno de Historia, 13 (2014).

47. Gregory, Intellectuals and Left Politics in Uruguay: 1958–2006, 89.

48. Ibid, 89.

49. Gabriel Peveroni, “Rock Que Me Hiciste Mal”, in Almanaque del BSE 82, 171. For an analysis of some of these bands in the context of the Spanish “movida”, see Allison, “The Construction of Youth in Spain in the 1980s and 1990s”, in Contemporary Spanish Cultural Studies, 268–269. In Perú, according to Shane Greene, the cassette technology was very important to allow both the circulation of foreign punk bands and the production and circulation of local bands. See Greene, “The Problem of Peru's Punk Underground: An Approach to Under-Fuck the System”, in Journal of Popular Music Studies, 582.

50. Peveroni, Rock Que Me Hiciste Mal, 171.

51. Guillermo Casanova was 24 old years old and the co-investigator and reporter Gerardo Michelín was 20 years old.

52. Gregory, Intellectuals, 90.

53. See Linn, “Cultura: El Turno de las Nuevas Generaciones: ¿Parricidas Estos o filicidas aquellos?”, in Cuadernos de Marcha, 64.

54. Trigo, “Rockeros y Grafiteros: La Construcción al Sesgo de una Antimemoria, in Memorias Colectiva y Políticas de Olvido: Argentina y Uruguay 1970–1990, 307.

55. For an analysis that explores the relationship between rock ‘n’ roll and 1968, see Frith, Sound Effects: Youth, Leisure, and the Politics of Rock, 194.

56. For a reflection on the importance of the song Me Gustan los Estudiantes in the Latin American context, see Chanan, “I Like Students”, at putneydebater.com http://www.putneydebater.com/i-like-students/>

57. Vania Markarian, “Sobre Viejas y Nuevas Izquierdas: Los jóvenes comunistas uruguayos y el movimiento estudiantil de 1968”, Secuencia, 176.

58. See Vania Markarian “Los Huevos del Plata: Un desafío al campo intelectual uruguayo de los sesenta”, in Recordar para pensar: Memoria para la Democracia 3, 135. From a wider stance, Chilean musicologist Juan Pablo González has argued that “Rock started by reinforcing the ideological and economic dependence of third-world countries on the United States, but later it has also contributed to their cultural independence. Because of its rebellious nature, rock has become independent in Latin-America from the United States and it has recovered its [original] counter-hegemonic role.’ Juan Pablo González, ‘Hegemony and Counter-Hegemony of Music in Latin-America: The Chilean Pop, Popular Music and Society, 68.

59. Interview in Radio Program “Suena Tremendo”: “Mamá era punk. Las voces de los jóvenes uruguayos a fines de los ‘80”. 21 November 2011. http://www.espectador.com/cultura/226825/mama-era-punk-las-voces-de-los-jovenes-uruguayos-a-fines-de-los-80. Accessed 19 February 2015.

60. Ibid.

61. See Samuel Blixen, Sendic, 183–189.

62. Trigo, Politics and Anti-Politics, 130. The cultural similarities between Buenos Aires, Argentina's capital city, and Uruguay tend to be encapsulated by the term River Plate, which is the geographical limit between the two.

63. Ibid, 130.

64. Delgado, “Rock uruguayo de los ochenta: La inesperada reinvención de las tradiciones”, in Dixit, 17.

65. See Gustavo Verdesio, Gabriel Peveroni and Eduardo Roland, “La movida de los 80: la ruptura cultural en Uruguay (I)”, Henciclopedia.org.uy, 1997, http://www.henciclopedia.org.uy/autores/Verdesio/Movida80II.htm (accessed July 21, 2014).