Teaching Safeguarding through Books: A Content Analysis of Child Sexual Abuse Prevention Books

ABSTRACT

Research attests that when children are given essential knowledge about Child Sexual Abuse (CSA) prevention, such as the maintenance of boundaries and personal space, the correct anatomical names for genitals, and information on how to distinguish between appropriate and inappropriate touching, children are less likely to experience sexual abuse and more likely to disclose abuse they have already encountered. CSA prevention books aim to teach children safety skills, helping to inform them on how to assess a situation and what to do if they are made to feel uncomfortable. This research analyzes 44 CSA prevention books to ascertain whether they are in line with academic recommendations as to what knowledge children should be taught in order to protect them, as much as possible, from sexual abuse. While most of the books do follow advice derived from the academic literature, only 7 books contained 70% or more of the information research determined to be essential. Despite the documented importance of teaching children anatomically correct names for genitals, this was missing in 91% of books analyzed. It is recommended, therefore, in order to ensure sufficient coverage of essential information, that multiple CSA prevention books are obtained for, and read with, children.

KEYWORDS:

• Child sexual abuse
• child protection
• abuse prevention
• children’s books
• literature analysis

Child sexual abuse (CSA) constitutes any sexual activity with an individual under the age of consent. CSA includes both contact abuse, such as assault by penetration, and non-contact abuse, such as the taking or viewing of sexual images of a child (NSPCC, 2018; World Health Organization, 2006). Finkelhor et al. (2014) found, specifically, that 26.6% of girls and 5.1% of boys in the US are sexually abused before the age of 18 years of age. Although accurate statistics concerning CSA cases are difficult to ascertain due to different definitions used in studies (Goldman & Padayachi, 2000; Walsh et al., 2015), it is clear that CSA is all too common, affecting a sizable proportion of society (Radford et al., 2011).

Any traumatic, deceitful or forced encounter during childhood can have a negative effect on children and adults in both the short – and long-term (Brown et al., 2011). Fergusson et al.’s (2013) research found that CSA can impact the child’s long-term emotional, physical, and psychological well-being (Hunt & Walsh, 2011). These negative implications are not inevitable, however, with many victims and survivors able to progress through adulthood without the debilitating effects outlined above (Collin-Vezina et al., 2013).

CSA prevention programs currently range from social service interventions and parental engagement classes to school-based teaching, but all these tend to rely on children’s ability to identify and report abuse (Wurtele, 2009). Only 50% of UK primary schools use CSA prevention programmes, discuss CSA prevention or teach children personal safety skills (Children’s commissioner, 2017). Since not all prevention methods work for every child, it is therefore necessary to put multiple CSA preventions in place to ensure that every child is protected from sexual abuse and can develop the personal safety skills to get help to stop any existent abuse.

Child abuse prevention can be viewed in three-tiers: primary, secondary and tertiary (Smallbone et al., 2008). Primary prevention is directed at the general population, to help prevent abuse before it occurs, often through education and support. Secondary prevention helps to reduce the risk of abuse by targeting specific individuals and families deemed to be at risk, preventing anticipated abuse, again, before it begins. Lastly, tertiary prevention helps to mitigate negative consequences following the abuse and to prevent such abuse from reoccurring. CSA prevention books mainly fit into the primary and secondary prevention, by educating children and the adults caring for them, equipping them with important information before abuse has occurred (Lampert & Walsh, 2010). Some CSA books, however, also aim to support the child after they have been abused.

Child Sexual Abuse Prevention Books for Children

CSA prevention books for children are storybooks containing age-appropriate information which aims to improve children’s personal safety skills knowledge, essential for abuse prevention (see NSPCC, 2018). Through the use of stories and the encouragement of interactive learning, the books help to prevent CSA by ensuring children are aware of what to do in the event of sexual abuse and how to identify behavior which is inappropriate, and which could, potentially, lead to abuse. Varying in style and content, the books vary in their suitability for different age groups.

CSA prevention books, when written in accordance with academic literature, are a useful resource in ensuring that important CSA prevention information is imparted to children. Used in a school or institutional setting, a range of CSA books prove economically viable, benefitting large numbers of children and their families and providing guidance and reassurance to parents and teachers alike who may feel daunted by or lack confidence in sharing CSA prevention information with children. While there is currently little information available as to who uses CSA prevention books and in what setting, large child protection charities such as the NSPCC (2018), The Chicago Children’s Advocacy Centre’s (2021) and Parents Protect (2018) advocate for the use of CSA prevention books, indicating their potential positive impact.

Research is also limited as to the effectiveness of CSA prevention books for children. Research by Macdonald (2001) and Lampert and Walsh (2010), examining the content of 13 and 15 CSA prevention books, respectively, indicates that the majority of CSA books are written by professionals in the area of child protection, such as social workers, pediatricians and psychologists. This fact would suggest that the books include somewhat accurate safety skills information and recommendations. These researchers also found, however, that the CSA books they analyzed often lacked esthetic and literary value, with the authors focusing more on the informative content as they were not coming from a book-writing background.

Macdonald (2001) used Rudman’s (1995) nine evaluative criteria during their research, while Lampert and Walsh (2010) used 18 criteria selected from Hawkins’s (1999) ‘Guidelines for Programs to Reduce Child Victimization.’ Both studies explored similar safety aspects of CSA prevention, including the identification of inappropriate touching, the importance of not blaming the child, and explaining to children the difference between ‘secrets’ and ‘surprises.’ Overall, both Macdonald (2001) and Lampert and Walsh (2010) found that, while most books included important information, it may not be possible for any single book to include all ideal prevention information and, thus, a selection of books covering multiple themes may be necessary.

With forms of CSA varying significantly, it is important to not rely totally on CSA prevention books. Wurtele et al. (1992) suggest that, due to the complex nature of CSA, a variety of diverse prevention methods, including targeting perpetrators of sexual abuse, is required to adequately address the problem. CSA prevention books should, they imply, not be used as the sole prevention method but as an additional tool to help prevent CSA, equipping children with information necessary to help them avoid CSA only alongside other CSA prevention methods. Finkelhor (2007) demonstrates how important it is for the child to possess knowledge which allows them to consciously resist the abuse, explaining that ‘[it would be] morally reprehensible not to equip them with such skills,’ since this would impose on them the ‘burden of preventing victimization’ which should be shouldered by the adults responsible for protecting them Finkelhor (2007, p. 643).

It is important to ensure that the books given to children contain the information academics have identified as essential in preventing the sexual abuse of children. This paper aims to identify which of the books analyzed were in keeping with the academic CSA prevention rhetoric. The content analysis below examines the quantitative and qualitative worth of the books, exploring the wording and information presented, and determining whether essential knowledge is covered.

What Children Should Know

Finkelhor’s (1984) preconditions model suggests that children’s lack of knowledge and inability to recognize abuse can leave them vulnerable to abusers, while Kenny and Wurtele (2008) work shows that children are more likely to report abuse once they are given the necessary language to explain what happened to them. Equipping children with age-appropriate knowledge of what sexual abuse is, that it is always wrong and how it can be stopped can, in itself, also help prevent sexual abuse or protect children from continued abuse once abuse has already occurred. It is necessary for CSA prevention books to give children the knowledge needed to recognize potentially abusive situations and to report abuse to ensure that it is stopped.

Although not specifically focusing on CSA, Hawkins (1999) ‘Guidelines for Programs to Reduce Child Victimization’ is a helpful framework which uses academic research and professional expertise to devise key components necessary for a prevention program to be effective. Hawkins (1999) proposes a scorecard, comprised of three main categories – skills, presentation, and awareness – to help evaluate prevention programs. The scorecard includes criteria such as strengthening self-esteem, teaching anatomical names for private parts, identifying appropriate touches, recognizing that some secrets should be told, knowledge as to how to identify trustworthy adults, and the importance of informing and educating adults. Both Macdonald’s (2001) and Lampert and Walsh (2010) research incorporates these themes within their evaluation criteria. For the purposes of this research, criteria relevant to CSA prevention have been used to create an evaluative framework with which the CSA prevention books are compared and explored.

Empowerment

Academic research shows the importance of children being properly informed and feeling empowered as well as being supported through positive adult-child relationships (Hershkowitz et al., 2007; Walsh et al., 2012). CSA prevention books can help meet these requirements by teaching the child that their body is their own and that nobody has the right to touch them without their consent. Kenny and Wurtele (2008, 2010) suggests that better educating children about their personal rights and bodies will help to empower them and reduce the likelihood of them being abused, with Elliot et al.’s (1995) research finding that abusers were less likely to abuse children who knew the anatomical names for their body parts.

Anatomically Correct Names

Kenny and Wurtele (2008), Wurtele & Kenny (2010) argues that quipping children with the correct names for their body parts empowers children, giving them the necessary language and vocabulary required to identify and report potentially abusive behaviors. Additionally, by giving children this information, children are then better able to understand safety skills, such as what ‘good touch’ and ‘bad touch’ or ‘comfortable’ and ‘uncomfortable’ feelings mean and what to do if they feel uncomfortable in a particular situation.

Appropriate Touches

In line with Finkelhor’s (1984) work, it is also important that children are taught about what touching is appropriate or inappropriate (NSPCC, 2018), describing this as ‘good touches’ or ‘bad touches.’ The US charity The Child Advocacy Center (2020) now suggests that we should move away from ‘good touch/bad touch,’ as sexual abuse does not always involve touching, and instead talk about ‘comfortable’ and ‘uncomfortable’ feelings. By equipping a child with this knowledge, they are empowered and able to learn that they have ownership over their own body and can say no if they feel uncomfortable about certain touching or behaviors.

Secrets and Surprises

Research undertaken by Kenny (2009) and Smith et al. (2015) demonstrates that the keeping of secrets by children can be potentially harmful to the child. Abuse is most often identified through children’s disclosure (Kenny, 2009). Children often refrain from telling secrets because they are afraid they will be in trouble, especially when manipulation tactics such as threats of retribution are used by abusers. If a child being abused is told to keep the abuse a secret, the abuse is more likely to continue for a greater length of time.

Trustworthy Adult

Part of the theoretical framework used to analyze the CSA books concerns the definition of a trustworthy adult. Søftestad et al. (2012) state how healthy parent-child relationships are helpful in reporting abuse, but not every child has a parent in their life who will believe their report of abuse or help end it. It is therefore necessary to ensure that every child knows both how to identify adults they can trust to help them. Also, since Smith et al.’s (2015) research highlights that some adults may not respond in suitable or helpful ways to children that disclose abuse, Wurtele et al. (1992) recommend teaching children to repeatedly tell trustworthy adults about the abuse until they receive help, and the abuse is stopped.

Parents and Educators

Teaching children safety skills can only go so far, and it is important that parents and educators in schools are well-informed and provided with useful information which ensures that they are able to keep children as safe as possible (Kenny, 2009; M. Kenny & Capri, 2008; Wurtele et al., 1992). One way this can be done is through the provision of CSA prevention books for children which include a section for parents and educators containing helpful information and outlining the importance of teaching safety skills. Better informed adults and the encouragement of positive adult-child relationships with both parents and educators increase the likelihood of children being able to report abuse or to speak out about something which they feel is inappropriate or which makes them feel uncomfortable (Walsh et al., 2012).

Method

The purpose of this research was to examine CSA prevention books for children and assess whether they contain the necessary prevention information that professionals and academics suggest that children should be taught. This research builds on Macdonald’s (2001) and Lampert and Walsh (2010) work, exploring more recent publications and analyzing them using an adaptation of Hawkins (1999) evidence-based criteria. To meet this objective, a quantitative and qualitative analysis of the books’ content was undertaken to identify the main themes and trends, and to understand how they are used. The chosen design allows for a broad understanding of the existing prevention information found in CSA prevention books, whilst also providing an insight into the language, tone and context in which the information is used.

Book Selection

The research aimed to include all of the CSA prevention books available for purchase online from 2017 to 2020. Various methods were used when collecting the books for the research in order to ensure that the most widely available and the most popular books were selected. Initially, an exploration was undertaken of children’s charities’ recommendations for CSA prevention books (see Chicago Children’s Advocacy Centre, 2021; NSPCC, 2018). Once the recommended books were selected, other books available through Amazon, Waterstones and additional bookstores were located. Key phrases were used to identify these books, such as ‘child protection books,’ ‘sexual abuse prevention books,’ and ‘child safety books.’

The search produced 68 books in total. Subsequently, books were removed that were either not published in English or published prior to 1980. Of the remaining books, only those aimed at primary school aged children (5–12 years) whose main theme focused on ensuring children’s safety and the prevention of sexual abuse were selected for further study. Any books which did not meet these criteria were removed from the analysis, leaving 44 books for the final examination.

Thus, while no assurance can be given that all CSA prevention books in print were selected by this process, every attempt was made to ensure that all readily accessible books were included in the research. Prior to this research, few studies had collected and analyzed the contents of CSA prevention books. In the studies by Macdonald (2001) and Lampert and Walsh (2010), only 13 and 15 books, respectively, were reviewed and analyzed. It is hoped that this research will demonstrate any observable changes or improvements made since these previous studies.

Analysis Criteria

In this study, a standardized approach was used (Neuendorf, 2002) to ensure that each book was analyzed for its CSA prevention content, drawing on analysis criteria first developed by Hawkins (1999) and later modified by Lampert and Walsh (2010). The various criteria used for the content analysis were: 1) Empowers the child, teaching them about body ownership (e.g., my body belongs to me); 2) Explains what ‘private parts’ or ‘off-limits’ areas are; 3) Teaches children correct anatomical terms for the private parts of the body; 4) Discusses appropriate and inappropriate touching; 5) Is clear and uses examples to help children distinguish between appropriate and inappropriate touching; 6) Teaches children that some secrets should be told; 7) Encourages disclosure by instructing children how to identify a trustworthy adult and urging them to disclose any abuse or worries to this person; 8) Instructs children to keep telling until the abuse stops; 9) Includes an information section designed to inform adults about child safety; and 10) Emphasizes that inappropriate adult behavior is never the fault of the child (see Table 1).

table 1. analysis criteria

	criteria explained	reasoning for criteria inclusion
criteria 1	empowers the child, teaching them about body ownership (e.g., my body belongs to me)	hershkowitz et al. (2007), walsh et al. (2012) and kenny and wurtele (2008, 2010) show how teaching a child body empowerment can help prevent abuse, with abusers less likely to abuse children who are confident of their rights.
criteria 2	explains what ‘private parts’ or ‘off-limits’ areas are	children who are able to identify areas of their bodies which are considered ‘off-limits’ to others or are called ‘private parts’ are less likely to be abused (elliot et al., 1995).
criteria 3	teaches children correct anatomical terms for the private parts of their bodies;	by being taught anatomically correct names for genitalia children are less likely to be abused, with abusers fearing the child’s disclosure (kenny & wurtele, 2008, kenny & wurtele, 2010).
criteria 4	helps children distinguish between appropriate and inappropriate touching	finkelhor’s (1984) demonstrates the importance of children being given the tools to identify when a touch is appropriate or inappropriate, helping them to inform a trusted adult if they experience something inappropriate.
criteria 5	is clear and uses examples to help children distinguish between appropriate and inappropriate touch	appropriate and inappropriate touches can be difficult to recognize. the books should make it clear to differentiate between ‘comfortable’ and ‘uncomfortable’ feelings using examples which helps aid the child’s understanding.
criteria 6	teaches children that some secrets need to be told	abusers manipulate and coerce children into keeping the abuse a secret (briggs, 1988; kenny, 2009; smith et al., 2015). it is important children are taught not to keep secrets but instead keep surprises which will soon be told.
criteria 7	encourages disclosure by instructing children to identify a trustworthy adult and urging them to disclose any abuse or worries to this person	unfortunately, not all children have trustworthy adults in their family, with 34% of abusers being family members (snyder, 2000). it is important children are taught how they can identify someone they can trust.
criteria 8	instructs children to keep telling until abuse stops	smith et al. (2015) found that despite children disclosing abuse to an adult, 20% continued to be abused for an average of 6 more years. it is essential that children are taught to keep disclosing to adults until they are helped.
criteria 9	includes an information section designed to inform adults about child safety	wurtele et al. (1992), m. kenny and capri (2008) and kenny (2009) implore the importance of adult’s in children’s lives having safety skills knowledge, helping to prevent abuse and facilitate positive adult-child communication.
criteria 10	emphasizes that inappropriate adult behavior is never the fault of the child	finkelhor (1984) found children often experience feelings of guilt, stigma, and blame. it is necessary for the books to be clear that the child is not at fault, helping children feel more capable of reporting abuse, without fear of blame.

All books were read three times by the researcher. The first read-through of the books was to get an overall impression of the book, its content and format, following which a short review was recorded, providing a general understanding of how each book used CSA prevention information. During the second read-through, each book’s content was coded using the analysis, assessing whether or not the books covered the recommended information. The final read-through examined the way each book included the prevention information listed in the analysis criteria. Each criterion was explored in detail and marked based on respective books’ use of language, tone, and context.

Comprehensive Findings

Book overview. The children’s books analyzed meet the coding frame criteria to varying degrees, with some meeting most of the criteria and other books only meeting a few. Half of the books (22) contained less than 50% of the criteria, with only 7 books found to include 70% or more of the criteria (see Table 2). The content of the 44 CSA prevention books for children is encapsulated in three main themes, which were repeatedly seen throughout the books analyzed. The three themes that emerged are: informing and empowering children about their bodies; teaching children safety skills knowledge; and ensuring the adults in children’s lives have and give accurate information.

table 2. books analyzed by analysis criteria

	criteria number										percentage of criteria included
	1	2	3	4	5	6	7	8	9	10
albury 2013	/			/			/			/	40%
bahr 1986	/	/		/	/		/		/		60%
brown 2015	/	/		/	/	/	/				60%
byers 2014	/	/				/	/			/	50%
byers 2015	/	/		/		/			/	/	60%
bishop 2016		/					/			/	30%
cole 2016	/					/	/				30%
edelman 2013		/			/	/	/	/			50%
feigh 2008	/						/				20%
federico 2008		/					/				20%
fitzgerald 2011	/	/		/	/	/	/		/	/	80%
fleming 2015	/	/		/		/	/	/		/	70%
freeman 1982	/			/							20%
geisler 2014	/						/				20%
grossman 2002a	/										10%
grossman 2002b	/				/	/	/				40%
hansen 2013	/	/	/	/			/		/		60%
holocomb 2015	/	/	/	/	/	/	/	/	/		90%
holsten 2005	/	/		/					/	/	50%
hossenion 2012	/					/			/		30%
hunter 2004						/					10%
jessie 1991							/	/		/	30%
kahn 2011	/	/		/	/		/	/		/	70%
kats 2011	/	/					/				30%
king 2010	/	/		/	/	/	/	/	/		80%
kisil m’ 2010		/			/	/	/				40%
kleven 1997	/	/			/		/			/	50%
marnach 2015	/						/				20%
manasco 2012				/			/		/		30%
martin 2011	/					/	/	/	/		50%
moore-mallinos 2005	/			/		/	/		/		50%
morrisroe 2013	/	/				/	/		/	/	60%
muldoon 2012	/	/							/		30%
pearl 2010						/			/		20%
ponce 2011	/			/		/	/				40%
power 2015	/			/	/		/				40%
sanders 2011	/	/				/	/		/	/	60%
sanders 2015	/	/							/		30%
sanders 2016	/	/	/	/	/	/	/		/		80%
spelman 1997	/	/			/		/		/		50%
starishevsky 2014	/	/				/	/		/	/	60%
turner 2016	/					/	/				30%
walvoord girard 1999	/	/	/	/	/	/	/	/	/	/	100%
watcher 1982	/	/				/	/	/		/	60%

Informing and empowering children about their bodies. Child empowerment is seen throughout the majority of the books analyzed, which equips the reader with some of the necessary knowledge and skills needed to identify abuse. The most popular theme, found in 36 books (80%), was the important theme of body empowerment (Criteria 1), teaching and reinforcing the knowledge that the child’s body is their own and that nobody is allowed to harm them or touch them without their consent: “Hi! I’m Izzy. In this book you will learn how to keep your body safe, and how to say in a big, strong voice: This is MY BODY! What I say GOES!” (Sanders, 2015; p. 3). Walsh et al. (2012) found that children who are assertive, know what abuse is, or understand that something is wrong are less likely to be abused, with the abuser being frightened of being caught by the child telling (see Finkelhor, 1984). Child empowerment is further encouraged by the vocabulary used in the CSA books, with descriptions of the child as brave or strong.

A significant theme within this area, which came through in many of the books, was ensuring that children know what their ‘private parts’ are. The literature (see Kenny & Wurtele, 2008; NSPCC, 2018) shows the importance of children being able to differentiate between parts of their bodies such as their genitals. Kenny and Wurtele (2008) explain how children should be told which parts of their bodies are not to be shared with others. 60% of the books refer to genitalia as ‘private parts,’ associating keeping one’s body safe with understanding that certain areas are ‘off-limits’ to others and often defining ‘private parts’ as those areas of the body covered by swimsuits (Criteria 2). A good example of this can be seen in Sanders’ book ‘No Means No!,’ in which ‘private parts’ are referred to as the area a swimsuit covers:

We all have private parts. I have private parts and Ki has private parts. My private parts are those parts of my body under my bathing suit or covered by my underwear … . Private means just for you! (Sanders, 2015; p. 23).

It is important that CSA prevention books teach children correct anatomical language. Kenny and Wurtele (2008) found that the use of anatomically correct language equips children with the necessary language required to expose abusers, with children found to be more likely to report abuse they are experiencing if they know anatomically correct names (Wurtele & Kenny, 2010). Elliot et al. (1995) found that some abusers admit to avoiding abusing children who know the anatomical names for their body parts out of fear of disclosure. Books shying away from teaching children the correct terminology for genitals are thus not adequately equipping children with the necessary ability to report abuse, thereby effectively silencing them. Use of anatomically correct names for genitals (Criteria 3) was the lowest scoring criteria, only seen in 4 of the books (9%). One of the books which did use anatomically correct names is ‘My Body is Private,’ where a mother tells her daughter: “ … It’s wrong if grown-ups or older kids try to touch or rub the private parts of your body – your breasts or your vagina or your bottom.” (Walvoord Girard, 1999; p. 20).

Staying safe – essential safety skills knowledge. Another prominent theme in the pursuit of improving children’s knowledge, empowering them, and preventing CSA was teaching the difference between appropriate and inappropriate touching, or between ‘good touch’ and ‘bad touch’ (Criteria 4). Forty two percent of the books discuss ‘good touch’ and ‘bad touch,’ mostly describing or demonstrating ‘good’ touches before going on to describing what constitutes a ‘bad’ touch. When discussing ‘good touch’ and ‘bad touch,’ many of the books are unclear when stating who is and who is not allowed to touch the child’s genitals. There are, for instance, just a few situations where a child needs help from an adult, such as when going to the toilet or bathing when they are younger or when they are sore or need medical help from a doctor. 33% of the books discuss which appropriate adults may touch the child’s genitals, and when (Criteria 5). An example of this can be seen in ‘NO Trespassing – This is MY Body!’:

A doctor may have to check your private parts to keep you healthy,” Mom said. “It’s okay if you’re at the doctor’s office with your Mom or Dad, but no one else should check your private parts. (Fitzgerald, 2011; p. 6).

Secrets were another continuous theme found in 53% of the books analyzed. These books explore whether and when the child should keep secrets, good or bad (Criteria 6). From very early on, children are taught to do what people in authority tell them and are reluctant to break these secrets, often out of fear of punishment (see Bogat & McGrath, 1993; Finkelhor, 1979). However, when taught the importance of telling others about ‘bad’ secrets, children are more aware of what to do in an abusive situation (NSPCC, 2018). In keeping with academic advice, the books which discuss secrets try to show children when secrets should not be kept: “Big people that LOVE YOU and RESPECT your PRIVATE BODY will not try to trick you or ask you to keep secrets about touching” (Fleming, 2015; p. 23).

Some variation exists between different books’ treatment of good and bad secrets. When discussing bad secrets, the books repeatedly refer to secrets which involve the body, such as can be seen in the abstract above, reinforcing the teaching that any secret involving the body should not be kept. Some books also discussed the difference between a secret and a surprise, suggesting that a surprise is okay to keep secret as it will soon be told, such as a birthday surprise. The books are all vague as to what constitutes a ‘bad secret’ and do not offer clear definitions. This may largely be due to abusers’ use of manipulation tactics in making the child think that a certain action or behavior is a demonstration of love rather than of abuse (see Finkelhor, 2007), thus making it hard to precisely define what constitutes a bad secret. Instead, the child is instructed to tell a trustworthy adult if they feel uncomfortable about any touches or requests to keep secrets, as can be seen in ‘My Underpants Rule,’ which says: “And if ANY of these things happen, ALWAYS tell someone you TRUST who wasn’t there when it HAPPENED and they’ll help you work it out” (Power and Power, 2015; p. 21).

With Snyder (2000) finding 93% of CSA cases being committed by someone known to the child, it is inappropriate for books to simply advise children to tell someone close to them. Referring the child to an adult who was not present during the abuse almost always ensures that the trusted adult is not the abuser. However, it is often not made clear in these books who the child can trust. Society expects the child to be able to trust their parents, but this is clearly not always possible, with Snyder (2000) suggesting that 34% of sexual abusers are actual family members. Indeed, 78% of the books analyzed discuss trustworthy adults to some degree (Criteria 7). However, this discussion varies from stating that the child must tell a trusted adult, to informing the child who they could consider to be a trustworthy adult: “Sammie learned that kids in need of help should go to a teacher, family member, friends or a trusted adult” (Morrisroe, 2013; p. 15).

Partially for this reason, it is also vital that CSA prevention books exhort the child to keep telling adults until the abuse stops (Criteria 8). Only 20% of the books did this. A good example of informing the child to keep telling adults until they are believed, and the abuse is stopped, can be seen in Kahn’s ‘Bobby and Mandee’s Good Touch Bad Touch’: “If the first grown-up you tell doesn’t believe you, don’t stop telling what is happening to you. Tell, until someone believes you!” (Kahn, 2011; p. 5).

Educating the educators – what information do adults require to keep children safe. Walsh et al. (2012) and Søftestad et al. (2012) demonstrate that the best way to protect children and stop abuse is by ensuring that children feel safe and comfortable talking with their parents or guardians about anything that upsets them. Walsh et al. (2012) found that the best way to encourage parent-child communication was through teaching and informing parents about CSA and involving them in repeating prevention methods, such as reading CSA prevention books with their children. 44% of the CSA prevention books analyzed have a section for parents which covers information and facts but also ways for the parents to introduce the subject of prevention and protection with children (Criteria 9). This inclusion of informative material for adults in a child protection role highlights a book’s ability to be used as a teaching tool with parents/guardians or teachers. Indeed, some of the books even include sections that rely on the child reading the book with an adult, such as can be seen in Hansen’s book: “I will take a long and trusted look at the person reading me this book. This person will believe me” (Hansen, 2013; p. 22).

Finkelhor and Browne (1985) found that children often experience feelings of shame and stigma following abuse, largely due to how others treat them after the abuse has been reported. It is vital to ensure children understand that, regardless of the response to their disclosures, it is not their fault they were abused, with 33% of books making it clear that the child is never responsible (Criteria 10). ‘Bobby Gilliam Brave and Strong’ covers this theme, with the parents in the book stating:

I believe you. This was not your fault. Uncle Ralph shouldn’t have shown you those videos or asked you to keep secrets from me. I’m so glad you told me. I am proud of you! You are brave. You are strong! (Byers Ruch, 2015; p. 28).

It is important that CSA prevention books are careful not to make the child feel responsible for the abuse experienced. Finkelhor (1979) states that children regularly blame themselves for the abuse, and this is one of the hardest aspects of the abuse to overcome. It is essential that neither the book nor the adult caring for a child blames that child or places even the smallest onus of responsibility on them for any abuse they may have experienced. However, some of the books analyzed contained inappropriate language or messages that put blame on the child for not preventing the abuse. This can be seen in ‘Samuel Learns to Yell & Tell,’ states:

Samuel dear, what if evil is a book. A book that’s filled with nasty pages. Of strange unclothed ladies. And someone says, “Just take a little look.” Samuel, will YOU look At the EVIL BOOK? Will you dirty up your precious soul. With pictures that the devil took? (Pearl, 2010; p. 18).

Comments like these can be damaging to the child and make them feel guilty and responsible for abuse that they have experienced (Finkelhor, 1979).

Discussion

Lampert and Walsh (2010) found that the majority of the books in their analysis were written by people in child protection professions – social workers, pediatricians and child psychologists – and greater value was placed on the books’ apparent educational value rather than their esthetic or literary value. While the majority of the books analyzed in this study are also written by child protection professionals, the 30 published since 2010 demonstrate a greater understanding and appreciation of the importance of a books’ esthetics and literary value. Most of these more recent books blend in with other, typical, books on a child’s bookshelf. The images are engaging, colorful, and informative, telling the story well or aiding the teaching of safety skills.

The books analyzed in the study ranged as to the contents included and the extent to which they met the analysis criteria. Books by Walvoord Girard (1999), King (2010), Fleming (2015), Holocomb (2015) and Sanders (2016) contained the most recommended content (see Table 2). It is very clear that these books are well thought out and the authors have put a lot of consideration into which information is included. The books’ substantial content covers a lot of the safety skills and knowledge children should know at an appropriate depth. These books, rich in content and information, provide children with the information academics and practitioners have identified as important in protecting children.

At the opposite side of the scale, books such as those written by Sanders (2011) and Jessie (1991) scored less well on the content they covered. The quality of the story in each of these books, however, and the detail included were able, due to their narrow focus, to take the child on a journey from before the abuse begins to after the abuse has stopped. Both of these books focus on empowering the child and telling them they should not feel guilt or shame as the abuse is never their fault. Thus, these story books, despite lacking the range of content, still make a valuable contribution to CSA prevention and children’s protection. These books may be better suited for children who have been or who are suspected of being sexually abused, although they should be used in addition to other more informative books which cover essential CSA prevention safety skills knowledge.

Rarely do the books discuss what happens after the child makes a disclosure. Wurtele et al. (1992) and Kenny (2009) suggest that an adult’s response to an abuse disclosure impacts how a child feels, with negative or accusatory responses leaving a child feeling vulnerable, victimized, and ashamed (see Finkelhor, 1979). Therefore, while it is important to teach children empowerment and encourage agency in the identification and reporting of abuse, this is insufficient. Parents and educators need to be better informed as to their responsibility for continuing the momentum of a child’s courage in disclosing abuse and in how to appropriately support the child following their disclosure.

To ensure that a book is appropriate for all children, at home or in school, it is recommended that a variety of books are selected, including storybooks and information books. The books should always be read through first by an adult to make sure that their content is appropriate and, also, to ensure that they are fully prepared for any questions the children may have afterward. Ideally, the selection of books should include those designed to be read with an adult as well as those intended for children to read on their own. Based on this research, a selection of books recommended for every school and children’s library would include: Jessie (1991), Walvoord Girard (1999), King (2010), Sanders (2011), Holocomb (2015), Fleming (2015), and Sanders (2016).

While this research does find that these recommended books contain much of the necessary CSA prevention information recommended, to varying degrees, it does not purport to state whether these books are representative of gender, race, or disability. It is also limited in its ability to directly refer to the effectiveness of these books in terms of impacting the prevalence of child sexual abuse. Indeed, as it can be seen, relatively little has changed from the past two studies which analyzed the content of CSA books (see Lampert & Walsh, 2010; Macdonald, 2001). The next step in research would be, firstly, to ensure that these books represent their child readers’ genders, ethnic backgrounds, and disabilities and, secondly, to assess whether the books actually do what they are intended to do and prevent abuse, empower children, and provide them with the tools and skills to disclose to trustworthy adults who can help them should they feel uncomfortable by others’ behavior.

Conclusion

The aim of this research was to analyze the content of CSA prevention books to determine whether the books’ content reflected the essential knowledge required to help safeguard children from CSA, as recommended by academics and professionals within the CSA prevention field. The books’ contents do not always include the information deemed necessary by academics to enable children and parents to develop adequate safety skills. Methods to determine the extent to which this outcome coincides with real life situations, such as interviews with children and their parents, would undoubtedly provide useful insights into the ability of these book to promote essential protective knowledge, but this was beyond the scope of the project. Notwithstanding such restrictions, however, the current study plays a vital and overdue role in examining how well the content of contemporary CSA prevention books aligns with the advice of the relevant professionals and academics, with little research of this nature having been previously undertaken (see Lampert & Walsh, 2010; Macdonald, 2001). While the research method used unavoidably relies on some subjective judgment of the explored material, all possible efforts to adhere to standardized methods have been made in order to minimize the inherent perceived limitations of this qualitative approach.

The analysis criteria, developed from the information gathered from academics’ and professionals’ recommendations of what essential knowledge children need in order to help safeguard them from CSA, included the use of anatomical language for genitals, understanding ‘good touch’ and ‘bad touch,’ learning to identify a trustworthy adult, the importance of persisting in reporting abuse and the understanding that no one should be pressurized to keep a secret. Kenny and Wurtele (2008) and the NSPCC (2018) show that children who are taught this specific knowledge are less likely to experience sexual abuse. One crucial outcome of the research undertaken is the acknowledgment of the importance of the warning from academics and professionals not to rely upon a single CSA prevention method. No one tool or approach should be considered sufficient in either combating CSA or equipping both children and the adults responsible for their care with the education and protection afforded by the knowledge essential for preventing exposure to CSA (Wurtele et al., 1992). Indeed, CSA prevention books should be used as one critical component in the strategy to combat the sexual abuse of children but should never be relied upon as a sole resource for child protection.

Ethical Standards and Informed Consent

Informed consent was not sought, as the published study did not involve human participants.

Disclosure statement

The author declares they have no conflicts to report.

Additional information

Funding

The author(s) reported there is no funding associated with the work featured in this article.

Notes on contributors

Eleanor Craig

Eleanor Craig is at the beginning of her academic career, in the second year of a PhD exploring child sexual abuse prevention methods. This is the first article she has submitted for publication. Research interests are childhood abuse, sexual abuse, children’s studies, abuse and power, vulnerability, and gender inequalities. For her PhD she is drawing on child sexual abuse victim’s and survivor’s experiences to identify why prevention methods do not work for some children and what can be done to increase their effectiveness.

Appendix

CSA Prevention Books Analyzed

Albury, K. 2013. Don’t You Dare Touch Me There. UK: Lightning Source.

Bahr, A. 1986. Your Body Is Your Own (It’s Ok to Say No). USA: Price Stern Sloan.

Bishop, S. 2016. It’s Okay to Tell. UK: Amazon.

Brown, M. 2015. Please Stop! Go Tell! UK: Amazon.

Byers Ruch, ca. 2015. Bobby Gilliam Brave and Strong. USA: Red Boot Publishers.

Byers Ruch, ca. 2014. Rise and Shine. A Tool for the Prevention of childhood Sexual Abuse. USA: Red Boot Publishers.

Cole, K. 2016. That Uh-oh Feeling. A story about touch. Canada: Second Story Press.

Edelman, R. 2013. My Private Parts are Private! A Guide for Teaching Children about Safe Touching. USA: CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform.

Federico, J. 2008. Some parts are NOT for sharing. US: Tate Publishing, LLC.

Feigh, A. 2008. I can Play It Safe. US: Free Spirit Publishing.

Fitzgerald, P. 2011. No Trespassing – This Is MY Body! US: Safely Ever After Media.

Fleming, L. 2015. I know tiny secrets. UK: Lightning Source.

Freeman, L. 1982. It’s MY Body. USA: An imprint of Chicago Review Press Incorporated.

Geisler, D. 2014. My Body Belongs to Me from My Head to My Toes. Germany: Sky Pony Press.

Grossman, L. S. 2002a. A Tale Worth Telling. Canada: Toronto Child Abuse Center.

Grossman, L. S. 2002b. Sam Speaks Out. Canada: Second Story Press.

Hansen, D. 2013. Those are My Private Parts. USA: Empowerment Productions.

Holocomb, J. S., and Holocomb, L. A. 2015. God Made All of Me. USA: New Growth Press.

Holsten, J. 2005. The Swimsuit Lesson. USA: Holsten Books.

Hosseinion, ca. 2012. U Touch I Tell. USA: CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform.

Hunter, N. 2004. A secret safe to tell. Australia: Classic Author and Publishing Services.

Jessie. 1991. Please Tell! A child’s story about sexual abuse. USA: Hazelden Foundation.

Kahn, R. 2011. Bobby and Mandee’s Good Touch Bad Touch. USA: Future Horizons.

Kats, J. 2011. Reena’s Bollywood Dream. USA: Loving Healing Press.

King, Z., and King, K. 2010. I Said No! A kid-to-kid guide to keeping private parts private. USA: Boulden Publishing.

Kleven, S. 1997. The right touch. A read-aloud story to help prevent child sexual abuse. USA: Illumination Arts.

Manasco, H. 2012. An Exceptional Children’s Guide to Touch. UK: Jessica Kingsley Publishers.

Marnach, K. J. W. 2015. My Body’s Mine. USA: YANA Press.

Martin, H. A. 2011. Matilda learns a valuable lesson. Australia: Safe4Kids Pty Ltd.

Moore-Mallinos, J. 2005. Do You Have a Secret? USA: Gemser Publications.

Morrisroe, R. 2013. No Secrets Between Us. USA: RoeZ.

Muldoon, K., and Muldoon, A. 2012. The Birthday Suit: Volume 1. USA: Kristina Muldoon.

Pearl, D. 2010. Samuel Learns to Yell & Tell. USA: NGJ.

Ponce, P. 2011. Uncomfortable Secrets. Australia: Babu Books.

Power, K., and Power, R. 2015. My Underpants Rule! Australia: Kids Rule Publishing.

Sanders, J. 2016. My body! What I say goes! Australia: UpLoad Publishing.

Sanders, J. 2015. No Means No! Australia: UpLoad Publishing.

Sanders, J. 2011. Some Secrets Should Never Be Kept. Australia: UpLoad Publishing.

Spelman, ca. 1997. Your Body Belongs to You. USA: Albert Whitman & Company.

Starishevsky, J. 2014. My body belongs to me. USA: Free Spirit Publishing.

Turner, A. 2016. Pinky Promise. UK: Lightning Source.

Walvoord Girard, L. 1999. My Body Is Private. USA: Albert Whitman & Company.

Watcher, O. 1982. No More Secrets for Me. USA: Little, Brown and Company.