A Dialectical Approach to Online Propaganda: Australia’s United Patriots Front, Right-Wing Politics, and Islamic State

Abstract

This article examines how the United Patriots Front (UPF), an Australian far-right organization, has communicated its ideology with reference to right-wing politics in Australia, Western Europe, and the United States, and through allusions to Islamic State. The investigation uses critical discourse and documentary analysis and a framework derived from the theory of Pierre Bourdieu to analyze textual and audiovisual postings on UPF Facebook pages, YouTube channels, and Twitter accounts. Relevant to the discussion are Bourdieu’s interdependent theories on “doxa” as a condition in which socially constructed phenomena appear self-evident, and “habitus” and “field,” which explain how structures and agents, through their reflexive behavior, become dialectically situated.

Acknowledgments

The author thanks those who read drafts of this article and Andy Fleming for sharing his insight and information about Australian far-right organizations.

Notes

1 By extension, far-right extremism has featured “anti-democratic dispositions and attempts that are traditionally positioned at the extreme ‘right’ of the left-right spectre.” Uwe Backes and Eckhard Jesse, “Politischer Extremismus in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland,” Bundeszentrale fu¨r politische Bildung (1993), 474, quoted in Cas Mudde, The Ideology of the Extreme Right (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2000), 10. Cas Mudde, “The Paradox of the Anti-Party Party Insights from the Extreme Right,” Party Politics 2, no. 2 (1996), 265–276.

2 “‘Unprecedented’ 65 Million People Displaced by War and Persecution in 2015—UN,” United Nations Office of the High Commissioner for Refugees, 20 June 2016, http://www.un.org/apps/news/story.asp?NewsID =54269 (accessed 1 June 2017).

3 See the findings of Oxfam’s 2017 report. Oxfam, “Just 8 Men Own Same Wealth as Half the World,” 16 January 2017, https://www.oxfam.org/en/pressroom/pressreleases/2017-01-16/just-8-men-own-same-wealth-half-world (accessed 1 June 2017).

4 Manuel Castells, The Rise of the Network Society. Vol. 1 of The Information Age: Economy, Society, and Culture (Oxford: Blackwell, 1996), 162.

5 Douglas Kellner, Media Culture: Cultural Studies, Identity and Politics Between the Modern and the Post-Modern (London: Routledge, 2003), 307.

6 Jean Baudrillard, Simulacra and Simulation (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1994); Anthony Giddens, The Consequences of Modernity (Victoria: Wiley & Sons, 2013).

7 Randal Marlin, Propaganda and the Ethics of Persuasion—Second Edition (Ontario: Broadview Press, 2013), 9.

8 Walter Laqueur, The New Terrorism: Fanaticism and the Arms of Mass Destruction (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000).

9 Christian Fuchs, Social Media: A Critical Introduction (London: Sage, 2017).

10 Fuchs, Social Media.

11 Gabriel Weimann, Terrorism in Cyberspace: The Next Generation (New York: Columbia University Press, 2015).

12 Jytte Klausen, “Tweeting the Jihad: Social Media Networks of Western Foreign Fighters in Syria and Iraq,” Studies in Conflict & Terrorism 38, no. 1 (2015), 1–22.

13 Ryan Shaffer, “Jihad and Counter-Jihad in Europe: Islamic Radicals, Right-wing Extremists, and Counter-Terrorism Responses,” Terrorism and Political Violence 28, no. 2 (2016), 383–394.

14 Daniela Pisoiu, “Subcultural Theory Applied to Jihadi and Right-Wing Radicalization in Germany,” Terrorism and Political Violence 27, no. 1 (2015), 9–28.

15 Juris Pupcenoks and Ryan McCabe, “The Rise of the Fringe: Right Wing Populists, Islamists and Politics in the UK,” Journal of Muslim Minority Affairs 22, no. 2 (2013), 171–184.

16 Lorraine Bowman-Grieve, “Exploring ‘Stormfront’: A Virtual Community of the Radical Right,” Studies in Conflict and Terrorism 32, no. 11 (2009), 989–1007.

17 Jose Zuquete, “The New Frontlines of Right-Wing Nationalism,” Journal of Political Ideologies 20, no. 1 (2015), 69–85.

18 Michael Suttmoeller, Steven Chermak and Joshua Freilich, “Is More Violent Better? The Impact of Group Participation in Violence on Group Longevity for Far-Right Extremist Groups,” Studies in Conflict and Terrorism, 7 April, 1-23.

19 J. M. Berger, “Nazis vs. ISIS on Twitter: A Comparative Study of White Nationalist and ISIS Online Social Media Networks,” George Washington University: Program on Extremism, September 2016, https://cchs.gwu.edu/sites/cchs.gwu.edu/files/downloads/Nazis%20v.%20ISIS%20Final_0.pdf (accessed 1 June 2017).

20 Amelia Johns, “Flagging White Nationalism ‘After Cronulla’: From the Beach to the Net,” Journal of Intercultural Studies 38, no. 3 (2017), 349–364.

21 Geoff Dean, Peter Bell, and Zarina Vakhitova, “Right-Wing Extremism in Australia: The Rise of the New Radical Right,” Journal of Policing, Intelligence and Counter Terrorism 11, no. 2 (2016), 121–142.

22 “Reclaim Australia Clashes with Opposing Groups at Rallies around the Country over Extremism and Tolerance,” ABC News, 5 April 2015, http://www.abc.net.au/news/2015-04-04/reclaim-australia-extremism-rallies-face-tolerance-groups/6370672 (accessed 1 June 2017).

23 “These Are the People Behind Anti-Muslim Protests in Australia,” ABC News, 12 December 2015, http://www.abc.net.au/7.30/content/2015/s4330308.htm (accessed 1 June 2017).

24 Yoni Bashan Lia Harris, “Fight For the Right To Hold Cronulla Riot Rally to Mark 10th Anniversary,” News.com.au, 5 December 2015, http://www.news.com.au/national/nsw-act/fight-for-the-right-to-hold-cronulla-riot-rally-to-mark-10th-anniversary/news-story/159676ff007570a790590185a4ba493d (accessed 1 June 2017).

25 “Australian Man Warns of Another Cronulla Riot after Being Bashed for Filming Muslim Women,” News Corp Australia Network, 9 September 2014, http://www.news.com.au/national/australian-man-warns-of-another-cronulla-riot-after-being-bashed-for-filming-muslim-women/news-story/47c184d5ca77c654688eac1a8d9b4675 (accessed 1 June 2017).

26 “These Are the People Behind Anti-Muslim Protests in Australia,” ABC News, 12 December 2015, http://www.abc.net.au/7.30/content/2015/s4330308.htm (accessed 1 June 2017).

27 “United Patriots Front,” Anti-Fascist Action Sydney, 26 May 2016, https://antifascistactionsydney.wordpress.com/category/united-patriotic-front/ (accessed 1 June 2017).

28 Blair Cottrell, “Possible Jail Time for Facebook Post,” YouTube, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=y93tXzTI-sE (accessed 1 June 2017).

29 Lorraine Bowman-Grieve, “Exploring ‘Stormfront’: A Virtual Community of the Radical Right,” Studies in Conflict & Terrorism 32, no. 11 (2009), 989–1007.

30 Ozconspiracy.com and The Great Aussie Patriot, “Top Ten Reasons Why UPF are Cants,” Facebook, https://www.facebook.com/1590707441239960/videos/1594220477555323/?pnref=story (accessed 1 May 2017).

31 See Chris Shortis in videos on the United Nationalists of Australia’s YouTube account, https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCv6C8Y_ALELhRkqVk-msLSg (accessed 1 May 2017).

32 This according to Cottrell, as stated on a Twitter posting and Facebook video, https://www.facebook.com/Blaircottrell89/videos/1969454510001334/ and https://twitter.com/blaircottrell89/status/876576066562805760 (accessed 10 June 2017).

33 Coen Ayers, “Blair Cottrell on Facebook and the UPF,” YouTube, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-wg4E1oFxWs (accessed 1 May 2017).

34 “United Patriots Front Displays ‘Stop the Mosques’ Banner on Kwinana Freeway,” PerthNow, 19 May 2016, http://www.perthnow.com.au/news/western-australia/united-patriots-front-displays-stop-the-mosques-banner-on-kwinana-freeway/news-story/5ff11338bc498f3785779fc92bd90711 (accessed 1 June 2017).

35 Calla Wahlquist, “Melbourne Pro-Trump Rally Outnumbered by Police and Counter-Protesters,” The Guardian, 20 November 2016, https://www.theguardian.com/australia-news/2016/nov/20/police-brace-for-duelling-pro-and-anti-trump-rallies-in-melbourne (accessed 1 June 2017).

36 Gus Goswell, “United Patriots Front Misses Deadline to Register Political Party Ahead of Federal Election,” ABC News, 2 June 2016, http://www.abc.net.au/news/2016-06-02/united-patriots-front-misses-federal-election-deadline/7470350 (accessed 1 June 2017).

37 http://www.fortitude-australia.com/about-us/ (accessed 1 June 2017).

38 @ndy, “Australian Pride March/Flagwit Rally, Melbourne: June 25, 2017,” Slackbastard, 18 June 2017, http://slackbastard.anarchobase.com (accessed 1 June 2017).

39 Anthony Galloway and Wes Hosking, “Police Find Anarchist Cookbook in Melbourne Home of United Patriots Front Member,” News.com.au, 20 November 2015, http://www.news.com.au/national/courts-law/police-find-anarchist-cookbook-in-melbourne-home-of-united-patriots-front-member/news-story/55c1241623727bd0ff5c26a3b77787d7 (accessed 1 June 2017).

40 Galea is the first “far-right” figure to be charged with a terrorism-related offense in Australia. Australian Associated Press, “Alleged Extremist Phillip Galea Faces Court on Charges of Preparing for Terrorist Act,” The Guardian, 19 April 2017, https://www.theguardian.com/australia-news/2017/apr/19/phillip-galea-faces-court-on-charges-of-preparing-for-terrorist-act (accessed 4 January 2018).

41 @ndy, “Give me the money Jew or else I will get you,” Slackbastard, 16 February 2014, http://slackbastard.anarchobase.com/?p=35596 (accessed 1 June 2017).

42 Geir O’Rourke and Angus Thompson, “United Patriots Front Leader Blair Cottrell Details Violent Criminal Past in Video,” Herald Sun, 11 June 2016, http://www.heraldsun.com.au/news/victoria/united-patriots-front-leader-blair-cottrell-details-violent-criminal-past-in-video/news-story/d107bccff2d3b305788e17d881ccec27 (accessed 1 June 2017).

43 Adam Holmes, “Three Charged After ‘Mock Beheading’ in Bendigo,” Bendigo Advertiser, 27 September 2016, http://www.bendigoadvertiser.com.au/story/4192804/three-charged-after-mock-beheading-in-bendigo/ (accessed 1 June 2017).

44 Norman Fairclough, Critical Discourse Analysis (London: Routledge, 2013).

45 Ibid., 4.

46 Ibid.

47 Pierre Bourdieu, Outline of a Theory of Practice, trans. Richard Nice (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1977).

48 Pierre Bourdieu, The Logic of Practice, trans. Richard Nice (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1990).

49 Steven Lukes, “Durkheim’s ‘Individualism and the Intellectuals,’” Political Studies 17, no. 1, 14–30, at 14.<AQ > year for note 49?</AQ>

50 Pierre Bourdieu, Distinction: A Social Critique of the Judgment of Taste, trans. Richard Nice (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1984), 170.

51 Following the writing of this article, the UPF, as a cohesive organization, has to an extent dissolved, while its members have moved into other far-right groups.

52 Pierre Bourdieu, Language and Symbolic Power. Ed. J. Thompson, Trans. Gino Raymond and Matthew Adamson (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1982), 185.

53 Nikolaus Fogle, The Spatial Logic of Social Struggle: A Bourdieuian Topology (Lanham, MD: Lexington Books, 2011), 74.

54 Bourdieu, Outline of a Theory of Practice.

55 Ibid., 471.

56 Jenna Johnson, “Trump Calls for ‘Total and Complete Shutdown of Muslims Entering the United States,’” The Washington Post, 7 December 2015, https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/post-politics/wp/2015/12/07/donald-trump-calls-for-total-and-complete-shutdown-of-muslims-entering-the-united-states/?utm_term=.bae86acbc14b (accessed 1 June 2017).

57 Reuters, “Anti-immigration Party Wins Swiss Election in ‘Slide to the Right,’” The Telegraph, 19 October 2015, http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/europe/switzerland/11939953/Anti-immigration-party-wins-Swiss-election-in-slide-to-the-Right.html (accessed 10 June 2017).

58 “Norway’s Progress Party Strides Forward in Latest Polls,” The Local, 1 June 2017, https://www.thelocal.no/20170601/norways-progress-party-strides-forward-in-latest-polls (1 June 2017).

59 Human Rights First, “Far-Right Parties in European Elections,” April 2015, http://www.humanrightsfirst.org/sites/default/files/HRF-European-Extremism.pdf (accessed 1 June 2017).

60 Jussie Rosendahl and Toumas Forsell, “Finnish Coalition at Risk After Nationalists Pick Hardline Leader,” Reuters, 10 June 2017, https://www.reuters.com/article/us-finland-government-finnsparty-idUSKBN19109T (accessed 1 June 2017).

61 Philip Blenkisop and Robert-Jan Bartunek, “Flemish Separatists are Big Winners in Belgian Election,” Reuters, 25 May 2014, http://www.reuters.com/article/us-belgium-election-idUSBREA4O0DT20140525 (accessed 1 June 2017). In Eastern Europe, nationalist parties are in power in the two Former Yugoslav republics of Macedonia and Serbia, while governments in Slovakia, Estonia, and Bulgaria have stated that they want to accept no refugees at all. Although these entities may not ubiquitously be referred to as “far-right” in ideology, they have all broadly campaigned on the bases of Euroscepticism, and anti-immigration policies from either outside their national borders or outside the boundaries of Schengen.

62 Jon Henley and Lizzy Davies, “Greece’s Far-Right Golden Dawn Party Maintains Share of Vote,” The Guardian, 19 June 2012, https://www.theguardian.com/world/2012/jun/18/greece-far-right-golden-dawn (accessed 1 June 2017).

63 “In Quotes: Geert Wilders,” BBC News, 4 October 2010, http://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-11469579 (accessed 1 June 2017).

64 Two other examples are the growing popularity of the Sweden Democrats and Austria’s Freedom Party. Lega Nord in Italy, which holds ties to Russia’s Vladimir Putin administration and right-wing nationalist groups across Europe is also currently polling fourth, and the Danish People’s party, which openly called for Denmark’s withdrawal from the EU Schengen agreement in the lead-up to the 2015 general election, is now the country’s second largest political party.

65 Michelle Fitzpatrick, “Europe’s Far-Right Leaders Have a New Slogan— #WeWillMakeOurCountriesGreatAgain,” Business Insider, 21 January 2017, http://www.businessinsider.com/afp-le-pen-headlines-european-counter-summit-in-germany-2017-1?IR=T (accessed 1 June 2017).

66 Neil Erikson, Facebook page, https://www.facebook.com/profile.php?id =100010754987073 (accessed 1 May 2017).

67 United Patriots Front, “Trump shuts down Merkel in recent meeting—‘immigration is a privilege, not a right,’” Facebook. Formerly available at https://www.facebook.com/unitedpatriotsfront/posts/438398543161270 (accessed 1 February 2017).

68 Blair Cottrell, “The Trump Smile: When You’re Surrounded by Cameras, Lies and Stupidity, But You Know You’re Going to Win So It’s All Good,” Facebook, https://www.facebook.com/Blaircottrell89/videos/1956102624669856/ (accessed 1 June 2017).

69 See Blair Cottrell’s Twitter updates, https://twitter.com/blaircottrell89.

70 Bianca Hall, “Far-Right Group UPF Plans to Run for Senate and Campaign on Right to ‘Bare Arms,’” The Age, 11 September 2015, http://www.theage.com.au/victoria/farright-group-upf-plans-to-run-for-senate-and-campaign-on-right-to-bare-arms-20150911-gjk73n.html (accessed 10 June 2017).

71 United Patriots Front, “Marine le Pen, You Are Welcome in Australia Anytime, In Fact You Can Replace Julie Bishop If You Like,” Facebook. Formerly available at https://www.facebook.com/unitedpatriotsfront/photos/a.107033656297762.1073741828.106736366327491/426993350968456/?type =3 (accessed 10 April 2017).

72 United Patriots Front, “Marine le Pen Savages Angela Merkel to Her Face in EU Parliament,” Facebook. Formerly available at https://www.facebook.com/unitedpatriotsfront/?rc=p (accessed 1 April 2017).

73 Blair Cottrell, “In Parliamentary Politics, the Women Have More Balls Than The Men. @marinelepen,” Twitter, https://twitter.com/blaircottrell89/status/834586014463037440 (accessed 1 June 2017).

74 Shermon Burgess, “Emmanuel Macron is a Rothschild Globalist,” YouTube, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=72V00VDUICs (accessed 1 May 2017).

75 Bourdieu, Outline of a Theory of Practice.

76 Blair Cottrell, “Explaining Propaganda,” YouTube, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OYDSG36qhm4 (accessed 1 May 2017).

77 Blair Cottrell, “Weaponized Words,” YouTube, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WF6yKKPvRc4 (accessed 1 May 2017).

78 Blair Cottrell, “Islamo-Communism, The New World-Wide Threat to Freedom?” Twitter, https://twitter.com/blaircottrell89/status/869416466256338944 (accessed 1 June 2017).

79 John Safran, Depends What You Mean by Extremist (Victoria: Penguin, 2017), 139.

80 Ibid.

81 Pierre Bourdieu, In Other Words: Essays Towards a Reflexive Sociology. Trans. Matthew Adamson (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1990), 12.

82 Evan Williams and Joel Tozer, “Dateline Europe Special: Young Hip and Far Right,” SBS, 25 April 2017, http://www.sbs.com.au/news/dateline/story/dateline-europe-special-young-hip-and-far-right (accessed 1 June 2017).

83 Ibid.

84 While nationalist far-right groups tend to use the yellow and black insignia, anti-globalization far-left groups have adopted the Lambda symbol in black and red.

85 Ibid.

86 Patrick Hatch, “Far-Right Anti-Islam Group to Rally at Victorian Parliament House,” The Age, 12 July 2015, http://www.theage.com.au/victoria/farright-antiislam-group-to-rally-at-victorian-parliament-house-20150712-giajz9.html (accessed 1 June 2017).

87 Shermon Burgess, “Poland. The True Beacon of Light for White European Survival,” YouTube, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Yp-RRhKEBq0 (accessed 1 June 2017).

88 Bourdieu, The Logic of Practice.

89 Bourdieu, Distinction, 77, 83.

90 “Antifa Notes (February 17, 2016): Neil Erikson ∼ versus ∼ Nationalist Alternative, United Patriots Front Etc.,” Slackbastard, 17 February 2016, http://slackbastard.anarchobase.com/?tag=neil-erikson (accessed 1 June 2017).

91 @ndy, “Melbourne neo-Nazis celebrate Adolf Hitler’s Birthday & ANZAC Day 2017,” Slackbastard, 26 April 2017, http://slackbastard.anarchobase.com/?p=41151 (accessed 1 June 2017).

92 Bourdieu, The Logic of Practice, 56.

93 Shermon Burgess, YouTube, https://www.youtube.com/user/BringingBackTheMan (accessed 1 June 2017).

94 Luke McMahon, “Gun-Toting ASnti-Muslim ‘Crusader’ at Lead of United Patriots Front,” The Sydney Morning Herald, 7 November 2015, http://www.smh.com.au/national/guntoting-antimuslim-crusader-at-lead-of-united-patriots-front-20151105-gkrk80.html (accessed 10 June 2017).

95 Hatch, “Far-right Anti-Islam Group to Rally at Victorian Parliament House.”

96 Jeff Sparrow, “A Fascist by Any Other Name,” Eureka Street, 16 November 2015, https://www.eurekastreet.com.au/article.aspx?aeid=45700#.WUdku8ZL1Bw (accessed 1 June 2017).

97 Brendan Foster, “Right-Wing Group the Wanted Hitler in Classrooms to Launch Political Party,” WA Today, 25 November 2015, http://www.watoday.com.au/wa-news/rightwing-group-that-wanted-hitler-in-classrooms-to-launch-political-party-20151125-gl7gmg.html (accessed 1 June 2017). Beyond his social media footprint, Cottrell has variously remarked on the difference between “highborn Jews” and “lowborn Jews” and expressed a variety of eugenic ideals that overtly recall the biological positivism of neo-Nazi Germany. In a series of videos on YouTube, Cottrell also referenced anti-Jewish conspiracy literature including The Protocols of the Elders of Zion, and stated that certain literature had “opened his eyes.” Safran, Depends What You Mean by Extremist, 152; @ndy, “Quotations From Chairman Blair Cottrell,” Slackbastard, 27 July 2015, http://slackbastard.anarchobase.com/?p=38730 (accessed 1 June 2017); @ndy, “Antifa Notes (February 21, 2016): Whitelaw Towers, United Patriots Front, Etc.,” Slackbastard, 21 February 2016, http://slackbastard.anarchobase.com/?p=39617 (accessed 1 June 2017).

98 Shermon Burgess, “3 WORDS—Hitler Was Right!,” Twitter, https://twitter.com/shermon_burgess/status/881497808854949888 (accessed 4 January 2018).

99 Safran, Depends What You Mean by Extremist, 143.

100 Bourdieu, Language and Symbolic Power.

101 “Australian Liberty Alliance: Home,” http://australianlibertyalliance.org.au (accessed 1 June 2017).

102 Kathy McCabe, “Angry Anderson Joins Anti-Islam Party to Chase a Senate Seat at the Federal Election,” News.com.au, 6 May 2016, http://www.news.com.au/entertainment/angry-anderson-joins-antiislam-party-to-chase-a-senate-seat-at-the-federal-election/news-story/cf23fd04d6e709c99d5feaeacb818f11 (accessed 1 June 2017).

103 Oliver Murray, “Far-Right-Wing Parties After Your Vote on Election Day,” News.com.au, 26 April 2016, http://www.news.com.au/finance/work/leaders/farrightwing-parties-after-your-vote-on-election-day/news-story/dea024a911e4e5bf2d8d6bb6fbd1f0b0 (accessed 1 June 2017).

104 James Robertson, “Fred Nile Denied Visa for Donald Trump Inauguration, Deemed a ‘Security Threat,’” The Sydney Morning Herald, 25 January 2017, http://www.smh.com.au/nsw/rev-fred-nile-denied-visa-for-donald-trump-inauguration-deemed-a-security-threat-20170125-gtycau.html (accessed 1 June 2017).

105 Uma Patel, “Pauline Hanson: One Nation Party’s Resurgence After 20 Years of Controversy,” ABC News, 11 July 2016, http://www.abc.net.au/news/2016-07-10/timeline-rise-of-pauline-hanson-one-nation/7583230 (accessed 1 June 2017).

106 Ibid.

107 Ibid. Highlighting the Party’s policy connection to groups such as the UPF, the ONP furthermore advocated for the installation of closed-circuit television surveillance cameras in all Muslim mosques and schools in Australia; a political philosophy that activists such as Fleming have highlighted, extends beyond condemnation of groups such as IS, to an explicit promotion of criminalizing Muslim life in Australia.

108 United Patriots Front, “‘I have a problem with his religion, not his skin colour’: Hanson says of departing CEO,” Facebook. Formerly available at https://www.facebook.com/unitedpatriotsfront/posts/428375617496896 (accessed 1 April 2017).

109 Blair Cottrell, “Shoutout to @realDonaldTrump! Pauline Hanson Gets an Inauguration Invite From the President Himself and Turnbull Gets a Kick in the Arse,” Twitter, https://twitter.com/blaircottrell89/status/827018459896705024 (accessed 1 June 2017).

110 United Patriots Front, “One Nation Leader Pauline Hanson Says Australians Are Calling For a Leader Like Russian President Vladimir Putin Who ‘Will Stand Up and Fight for this Country,’” Facebook. Previously available at https://www.facebook.com/unitedpatriotsfront/posts/431877477146710 (accessed 1 April 2017).

111 United Patriots Front, “Pauline Hanson Fighting for British Immigrants Facing Deportation,” Facebook. Formerly available at https://www.facebook.com/unitedpatriotsfront/posts/431658630501928 (accessed 1 April 2017).

112 Bourdieu, Distinction.

113 New Matilda, “We Read George Christensen’s Reclaim Speech, So You Didn’t Have To,” NewMatilda.com, 19 July 2015, https://newmatilda.com/2015/07/19/we-read-george-christensens-reclaim-speech-so-you-didnt-have/ (accessed 1 June 2017).

114 Ashlynne McGhee, “Cory Bernardi: Where Does the Senator Stand on Key Issues?” ABC News, 6 February 2017, http://www.abc.net.au/news/2017-02-06/cory-bernardi-profile-who-is-he-and-where-does-he-stand/8244040 (accessed 1 June 2017).

115 United Patriots Front, “Senator Bernardi from Adelaide, Always Defiant,” Facebook. Formerly available at https://www.facebook.com/unitedpatriotsfront/posts/371025866565205 (accessed 1 June 2017).

116 Wayne Flower, “Protests as United Patriots Front Members Appear in Court,” Herald Sun, 23 May 2017, http://www.heraldsun.com.au/news/law-order/protests-as-united-patriots-front-members-appear-in-court/news-story/55a851c54527cd341cb6b1c73cad2b0a (accessed 1 June 2017).

117 United Patriots Front, “I don’t want Muslims coming here,” Facebook. Formerly available at https://www.facebook.com/unitedpatriotsfront/posts/?ref=page_internal (accessed 1 June 2017).

118 Nicholas Fogle, The Spatial Logic of Social Struggle: A Bourdieuian Topology (Lanham, MD: Lexington Books, 2011), p. 73.

119 This was, in fact, the event that triggered the formation of Reclaim Australia; a group from which the UPF emerged.

120 Blair Cottrell, “The Last Terror Attack in Brighton was a PAROLE Issue According to @TurnbullMalcolm—Its Got Nothing To Do With Islam & It’s Teachings,” Twitter, https://twitter.com/blaircottrell89/status/871971689764012032 (accessed 10 June 2017).

121 Blair Cottrell, “Sometimes the Most Simplistic Solution Is the Best and Only One. Stop. Letting. Them. In.,” Twitter, https://twitter.com/blaircottrell89/status/871277275706138624 (accessed 8 June 2017).

122 United Patriots Front, “While the Ethnic European Population is Being Disarmed by Left-Wing Anti-Gun Laws, the Islamic Communities are Importing Tens of Thousands of Assault Rifles and Other Munitions,” Facebook. Formerly available at https://www.facebook.com/unitedpatriotsfront/posts/437326263268498 (accessed 1 June 2017).

123 United Patriots Front, “Turkish President Recep Erdogan has urged all Turks living in Europe to have at least five children, saying they are the future of the continent and that it would be the best response to the ‘injustices’ imposed on expatriates there,” Facebook. Formerly available at https://www.facebook.com/unitedpatriotsfront/posts/438383513162773 (accessed 1 June 2017).

124 Fogle, The Spatial Logic of Social Struggle, 74.

125 Flower, “Protests as United Patriots Front Members Appear in Court.”

126 Michael Bachelard and Luke McMahon, “Blair Cottrell, Rising Anti-Islam Movement Leader, Wanted Hitler in the Classroom,” The Sydney Morning Herald, 17 October 2015, http://www.smh.com.au/national/blair-cottrell-leader-of-aussie-patriots-upf-wanted-hitler-in-the-classroom-20151016-gkbbvz.html (accessed 1 June 2017).

127 Tom Sewell, Twitter page, https://twitter.com/tom_sewell93?lang=en (accessed 1 June 2017).

128 @ndy, “Quotations From Chairman Blair Cottrell.”

129 Safran, Depends What You Mean By Extremist, 187.

130 Sunshinepolicy, “Blair Cottrell—Nationalism, Mental Illness and ‘Our People,’” YouTube, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zVTeE4JhtbM (accessed 1 June 2017).

131 SwedenIsCucked BlackLiesMatter, “Why Do We Take in Refugees?” YouTube, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=T2PCx6kpxIk (accessed 1 June 2017).

132 SwedenIsCucked BlackLiesMatter, “Why Do We Take in Refugees?”

133 Chris Shortis, Twitter page, https://twitter.com/christgun?lang=en (accessed 1 June 2017).

134 Luke McMahon, “Gun-Toting Anti-Muslim ‘Crusader’ at Lead of United Patriots Front.”

135 Blair Cottrell, “Had This Gentleman Watching Over Me Yesterday. Some Of Us ‘Talk’ About Another Crusade—But This Guy is 100% Ready To Go,” Twitter, https://twitter.com/blaircottrell89/status/867201898968866816 (accessed 1 June 2017). Safran also revealed that in interview he announced that Judaism and Islam served as an ideological “blueprint” for the UPF “because they all have a single and uncompromising ideology,” Safran, Depends What You Mean By Extremist, 214.

136 Blair Cottrell, “More Ammo For Our Legal Defence,” Facebook, https://www.facebook.com/Blaircottrell89/posts/1959397157673736 (accessed 1 June 2017).

137 Martha Azzi, “Right-Wing Extremists Placed on Terrorism Watch Lists Over Fears They Are Plotting Violent Attacks in Australia,” DailyMail, 23 July 2016, http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-3703660/Right-wing-extremists-placed-terrorism-watch-lists-fears-plotting-violent-attacks-Australia.html (accessed 1 June 2017).

138 Royce Kermelovs, “Australian Far Right Group ‘Used Me For Propaganda,’” BBC News, 29 November 2015, http://www.bbc.com/news/world-australia-34918311 (accessed 1 June 2017).

139 IBT, “Hack Live Aussie Patriots,” YouTube, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tGwHXPFRRRo (accessed 1 June 2017).

140 Albert Breton, Political Extremism and Rationality (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002).

141 Fuchs, Social Media.

142 Al-Hayat, “From Hypocrisy to Apostasy: The Extinction of the Grayzone,” Dabiq, 12 February 2014, http://media.clarionproject.org/files/islamic-state/islamic-state-Dabiq- magazine-issue-7-from-hypocrisy-to-apostasy.pdf (accessed 1 January 2015).

143 Samuel Huntington, The Clash of Civilizations and the Remaking of the World Order (Delhi: Penguin Books India, 1997).