Virtual and Physical Realities: Violent Extremists’ Recruitment of Individuals Associated with the US Military

Abstract

In an era of social media, the lines between physical and virtual realities have become blurred. This is especially evident in recruitment activities by violent extremists. This article compares five case studies from the white power and militia movements to learn how extremists attract new members. The findings suggest that recruitment occurs through iterative interactions in virtual and physical spaces. These spaces are not isolated to a single movement; individuals instead move between them. The findings did not reveal a divergence between civilian vs military recruits. Nevertheless, more research is needed on the extent to which veterans recruit their peers.

Disclosure Statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).

Notes

1 George Petras, Janet Loehrke, Ramon Padilla, Javier Zarracina, and Jennifer Borresen, "Timeline: How the Storming of the U.S. Capitol Unfolded on Jan. 6." USA Today, February 9, 2021, https://www.usatoday.com/in-depth/news/2021/01/06/dc-protests-capitol-riot-trump-supporters-electoral-college-stolen-election/6568305002/.

2 Ibid.

3 Ibid.

4 Olivia Rubin, "Number of Capitol Riot Arrests of Military, Law Enforcement and Government Personnel Rises to 52." ABC News, April 23, 2021, https://abcnews.go.com/US/number-capitol-riot-arrests-military-law-enforcement-government/story?id=77246717.

5 See, for example, Majority Staff of the House Committee on Veterans’ Affairs, Report on Domestic Violent Extremist Groups and the Recruitment of Veterans (Washington DC: House Committee on Veterans’ Affairs, 2022), https://veterans.house.gov/news/press-releases/chairman-takano-releases-staff-report-on-the-recruitment-of-veterans-by-domestic-violent-extremist-groups-announces-follow-up-hearing; This is Our House: A Preliminary Assessment of the Capitol Seige Participants, George Washington University’s Program on Extremism (Washington DC: Program on Extremism, 2021); and, Robert Pape and Keven Ruby, “The Capitol Rioters Aren’t Like Other Extremists.” The Atlantic, February 2, 2021, https://www.theatlantic.com/ideas/archive/2021/02/the-capitol-rioters-arent-like-other-extremists/617895/.

6 Rachel Goldwasser, “Extremism Among Active-Duty Military and Veterans Remains a Clear and Present Danger.” Hatewatch, Southern Poverty Law Center, October 12, 2021, https://www.splcenter.org/hatewatch/2021/10/12/extremism-among-active-duty-military-and-veterans-remains-clear-and-present-danger.

7 Pete Simi and Robert Futrell, American Swastika: Inside the White Power Movement’s Hidden Spaces of Hate, 2nd ed. (Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield, 2015).

8 Robert H. Churchill, To Shake Their Guns in the Tyrant’s Face: Libertarian Political Violence and the Origins of the Militia Movement. (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 2011); and, Daniel Levitas, The Terrorist Next Door: The Militia Movement and the Radical Right. (New York: St Martins, 2002).

9 Alexandra Minna Stern, Proud Boys and the White Ethnostate: How the Alt-Right is Warping the American Imagination. (Boston: Beacon Press, 2019).

10 Betty A Dobratz and Stephanie L. Shanks-Meile, The White Separatist Movement in the United States. (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1997).

11 Cynthia Miller-Idriss, Hate in the Homeland: The New Global Far Right. (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2020).

12 George Hawley, Making Sense of the Alt-Right. (New York: Columbia University Press, 2017).

13 Arie Perliger, American Zealots. (New York: Columbia University Press, 2020)

14 David Collier, "The Comparative Method." in Political Science: The State of the Discipline, II, ed. A. W. Finifter (Washington DC: American Political Science Association, 1993), 105–19.

15 Ibid., 115–116.

16 Ibid., 111; See also, Jason Seawright and John Gerring, “Case Selection Techniques in Case Study Research: A Menu of Qualitative and Quantitative Options,” Political Research Quarterly 6, no. 2 (2008): 305–6.

17 Matthew M. Sweeney and Arie Perliger, “Explaining the Spontaneous Nature of Far-Right Violence in the United States,” Perspectives on Terrorism 12, no. 1 (2018): 52–71; and Brian J. Phillips, "Deadlier in the U.S.? On Lone Wolves, Terrorist Groups, and Attack Lethality," Terrorism and Political Violence (2015): 533–49.

18 David Collier, "The Comparative Method,” 111–6; and, Jason Seawright and John Gerring, “Case Selection Techniques,” 305–6.

19 Alexander Mallin and Will Steakin, "Oath Keepers Stashed Weapons at Hotel for Potential Jan. 6 Violence, Prosecutors Indicate." ABC News, April 13, 2021, https://abcnews.go.com/US/oath-keepers-stashed-weapons-hotel-potential-jan-violence/story?id=77048420.

20 Sam Jackson, Oath Keepers: Patriotism and the Edge of Violence in a Right-Wing Antigovernment Group (New York: Columbia University Press, 2020): 30–1.

21 Simi and Futrell, American Swastika, 3.

22 Ibid.

23 Ibid.

24 Ibid.

25 Ibid.

26 Miller-Idriss, Hate in the Homeland, 15–6.

27 Ibid.

28 Ibid., 17.

29 Ibid., 47.

30 Ibid., 30.

31 Ibid., 30–1.

32 Tiana Gaudette, Ryan Scrivens, and Vivek Venkatesh, "The Role of the Internet in Facilitating Violent Extremism: Insights from Former Right-Wing Extremists." Terrorism and Political Violence, 6 July 2020: 3, https://doi.org/10.1080/09546553.2020.1784147.

33 Ibid., 6–7.

34 Ibid., 9–10.

35 Ibid., 14.

36 Miller-Idriss, Hate in the Homeland, 15–7.

37 Perliger, American Zealots, 21.

38 Ibid.

39 Churchill, To Shake their Guns, 9–13.

40 Ibid., 9.

41 Ibid., 13.

42 Ibid.

43 It includes, for example, foundational research by Italian sociologist Donatella della Porta on Euskadi Ta Askatasuna; Israeli political scientist Ehud Sprinzak’s theory of delegitimization based on his research of Israeli settler violence, as well as American psychologist Anne Speckhard’s interviews-based research on Chechen and other fighters. Donatella della Porta, "Left-Wing Terrorism in Italy," in Terrorism in Context, ed. Martha Crenshaw (State College: Pennsylvania State University Press, 1995); Ehud Sprinzak, "The Process of Delegitimation: Towards a Linkage Theory of Political Terrorism," Terrorism and Political Violence 3, no, 1, 1991: 50–68; Anne Speckhard and Khapta Ahkmedova, "The Making of a Martyr: Chechen Suicide Terrorism." Studies in Conflict and Terrorism 29, no. 5, 2006.

44 Stephanie J. Baele, Lewys Brace, Travis G. Coan, “Variations on a Theme? Comparing 4chan, 8kun, and Other chans’ Far-Right “/pol” Boards.” Perspectives on Terrorism 15, no. 1, 2021: 65–80; and Mia Bloom and Sophia Moskalenko, Pastels and Pedophiles: Inside the Mind of QAnon (Stanford: Redwood Press, 2021).

45 Scrivens Gaudette and Venkatesh, “The Role of the Internet”; Christine Fair, "Who Are Pakistan’s Militants and Their Families?" Terrorism and Political Violence 20, no. 1, 2007: 49–65, https://doi.org/10.1080/09546550701733996; Ryan Andrew Brown et al., Violent Extremism in America: Interviews with Former Extremists and their Families on Radicalization and Deradicalization (Santa Monica: RAND Corporation, 2021)

46 Susan Fahey and Pete Simi. "Pathways to Violent Extremism: A Qualitative Comparative," Dynamics of Asymmetric Conflict 12, no. 1, 2019: 42–66, https://doi.org/10.1080/17467586.2018.1551558; Clark McClauley and Sophia Moskalenko, "Mechanisms of Political Radicalization: Pathways Toward Terrorism." Terrorism and Political Violence 20, no. 3, 2008: 415–33, https://doi.org/10.1080/09546550802073367; and, Michael Jensen, Anita Atwell Seate, and Patrick A. James, "Radicalization to Violence: A Pathway Approach to Studying Extremism." Terrorism and Political Violence (2018): 1067–90, https://doi.org/10.1080/09546553.2018.1442330.

47 Jensen, Seate, and James, “Radicalization to Violence,” 1069–71.

48  

49  

50 Fahey and Simi, “Pathways to Violent Extremism,” 42–6.

51 Ibid., 44–5.

52 Ibid., 52.

53 Ibid., 57.

54 Brown et al, Violent Extremism in America.

55 Ibid., 31.

56 Ibid., ix.

57 Ibid., iix.

58 Ibid., 53–4.

59 Fahey and Simi, “Pathways to Violent Extremism,” 52.

60 Daniel Koehler, "A Threat from Within: Exploring the Link between the Extreme Right and the Military." ICCT Policy Brief, 6 February 2019, doi:10.19165/2019.2.06; and, Cynthia Miller-Idriss, "Extremism has Spread into the Mainstream." The Atlantic, June 2021, https://www.theatlantic.com/ideas/archive/2021/06/us-fighting-extremism-all-wrong/619203/; and, Tuen van Dongen, Yannick Veilleux-Lepage, Eviane Leidig, and Hanna Rigault Arkhis, Right-Wing Extremism in the Military: A Typology of the Threat. Research Paper (The Hague: International Centre for Counter-Terrorism, 2022): 1–36.

61 Kathleen Belew, Bring the War Home: The White Power Movement and Paramilitary America (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2019).

62 Ibid., 19–32.

63 Ibid., 24–32.

64 Ibid., 20, and 52–3.

65 Ibid., 238–9.

66 Ibid., 191–5.

67 Jackson, Oath Keepers.

68 Ibid., 25 and 60.

69 Ibid., 34.

70 Ibid., 59–63.

71 Majority Staff, Report on Domestic Violent Extremist Groups.

72 United States of America vs Stephen "Kiwi" Parshall, Andrew Lynam, and William L. Loomis. 2:20-mj-00456-BNW, United States District Court of Nevada, June 1, 2020.

73 Ibid.

74 Ibid; see also, Lauren Fruen, "Two Military Vets and Army Reservist ‘Boogaloo Boys’ Arrested at George Floyd Protest in Vegas with Molotov Cocktails – as it’s Revealed ‘Boobytraps and Bombmaking Equipment were Found in Their Homes’." Associated Press, June 8, 2020.

75 Dale Beran, "The Boogaloo Tipping Point." The Atlantic, July 4, 2020.

76 Bloom and Moskalenko, Pastels and Pedophiles, 2021.

77 Beran, “The Boogaloo Tipping Point”; Leah Sottile, "The Chaos Agents," The New York Times, August 23, 2020; and, A. C. Thompson, Lila Hassan, and Karim Hajj, "The Boogaloo Bois Have Guns, Criminal Records and Military Training. Now They Want to Overthrow the Government." Frontline and ProPublica, 2021, https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/frontline/article/boogaloo-bois-military-training-overthrow-government/.

78 Beran, “The Boogaloo Tipping Point”; and, Ryan Devereaux and Sam Biddle, "On Telegram, the Paramilitary Far Right Looks to Radicalize New Recruits Before Inauguration Day." The Intercept, January 12, 2021, https://theintercept.com/2021/01/12/boogaloo-telegram-violence-recruit/

79 Thompson, Hassan, and Hajj, "The Boogaloo Bois Have Guns.”

80 Sottile, "The Chaos Agents."

81 United States of America vs Stephen "Kiwi" Parshall.

82 Thompson, Hassan, and Karim Hajj, "The Boogaloo Bois Have Guns,”; and Sottile, "The Chaos Agents."

83 "Members of Facebook Boogaloo Groups Arrested on Terrorism-Related Charges." TechTransparency Project, June 4, 2020, https://www.techtransparencyproject.org/articles/members-facebook-boogaloo-groups-arrested-terrorism-related-charges.

84 Ibid.

85 Fruen, "Two military vets and Army reservist.”

86 Jeff German, "Boogaloo Informant reveals how he helped FBI infiltrate Las Vegas Group." Las Vegas Review-Journal, July 7, 2020.

87 Ibid; Sottile, "The Chaos Agents;" and, United States of America vs Stephen "Kiwi" Parshall.

88 Ibid; and, Beran, “The Boogaloo Tipping Point.”

89 German, "Boogaloo Informant”; and, United States of America vs Stephen "Kiwi" Parshall.

90 Ibid.

91 United States of America vs Stephen "Kiwi" Parshall.

92 Ibid; and, Fruen, "Two military vets and Army reservist.”

93 Ibid.

94 Ibid.

95 United States of America vs Adam Dean Fox, Barry Gordan Croft Jr., Kaleb James Franks, Daniel Joseph Harris, and Brandon Michael-Ray Caserta. 1:20-CR-00183 (United States District Court Western District of Michigan Southern Division, April 28, 2021); United States vs Ty Garbin. 1:20-CR-183-3 (United States District Court for the Western District of Michigan, Southern Division, August 18, 2021); Paul Egan, "Wisconsin Dells Man is Charged in Michigan Kidnapping Plot," The Milwaukee Journal Sentinel, October 16, 2020; Joe Guillen, Jennifer Dixon, Eric D. Lawrence, and John Wisely, "Details on the 13 Charged in Kidnapping Plots; Some Suspects Connected to Wolverine Watchmen," Detroit Free Press, October 9, 2020; and, "Member of the Wolverine Watchmen Faces Felony Weapons Charges," States News Service, March 22, 2021.

96 Transcript of Preliminary Hearing Before United States Magistrate Judge Sally J. Berens, Grand Rapids, Michigan. Docket 1:20-mj-416 (United States District Court Western District of Michigan, Southern Division, October 13, 2020).

97 Guillen, Dixon, Lawrence, and Wisely, "Details on the 13 charged,”; United States of America vs Adam Dean Fox; and, United States vs Ty Garbin.

98 Guillen, Dixon, Lawrence, and Wisely, "Details on the 13 Charged,”; and Transcript of Preliminary Hearing.

99 Josh Hafner, "Three Percenters: What is the gun-toting group? And what do its supporters want?" USA Today, March 1, 2018, https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/nation-now/2018/03/01/three-percenters-what-gun-toting-group-and-what-do-its-supporters-want/385463002/; Alan Feuer and Matthew Rosenberg, "Men Said to be Tied to Three Percenters Movement are Charged in Capitol Riot." New York Times, June 10, 2021 https://www.nytimes.com/2021/06/10/us/politics/three-percenter-capitol-riot.html.

100 Hafner, "Three Percenters,”; and, “The Three Percenter Militia is Hell-Bent on Keeping its Guns." Vice News, October 18, 2021, https://www.vice.com/en/article/ne78pk/this-three-percenter-militia-is-hell-bent-on-keeping-its-guns.

101 Ibid.

102 John Mintz, "Militias Meet the Sentate with Conspiracies to Share." The Washington Post, June 16, 1995, https://www.washingtonpost.com/archive/politics/1995/06/16/militias-meet-the-senate-with-conspiracies-to-share/7d0e9384-aa22-47f3-ba6b-8465fed9f447/.

103 Ibid.

104 As-of publication, these two men had yet to go to trial. See, Guillen, Dixon, Lawrence, and Wisely, "Details on the 13 charged;” and, Taylor Wizner, “Traverse City Judge Reduces Bond Conditions for Man Accused in Plot Against Gov. Whitmer,” WKAR Public Radio, April 7, 2022, https://www.wkar.org/wkar-news/2022-04-07/traverse-city-judge-reduces-bond-conditions-for-man-accused-in-plot-against-gov-whitmer.

105 As-of publication, these two men were facing a retrial after a hung jury. See, Transcript of Preliminary Hearing; and, United States of America vs Adam Dean Fox; and, Michael Krafcik, “Judge orders new trial for men accused in plot to kidnap and kill Gov. Whitmer,” News Channel 3, June 30, 2022, https://wwmt.com/news/local/whitmer-kidnapping-trial-plot-michigan-barry-croft-adam-fox-mistrial-militas-wolverine-watchmen-extremists-conspiracy-kidnap-weapons-mass-destruction.

106 Ibid.

107 Ibid.

108 Ibid; see also, Egan, "Wisconsin Dells man is charged,”; and, David Eggert, "Accused Kidnappers Attended Armed Michigan Protests." Miami Times, October 14, 2020.

109 Ibid; and, United States vs Ty Garbin.

110 Egan, "Wisconsin Dells man is charged,”; United States of America vs Adam Dean Fox.

111 United States of America vs Adam Dean Fox

112 United States of America vs Adam Dean Fox; Omar Abdel-Baqui and Joe Guillen, "Informant details alleged kidnap plot; Man testifies about time with Wolverine Watchmen," Detroit Free Press. March 6, 2021; and, Darcie Moran, "Suspect gets significantly lower bond; Morrison will go home after 438 days locked up," Detroit Free Press, December 21, 2021.

113 Abdel-Baqui and Guillen, "Informant details alleged kidnap plot,”; and, Transcript of Preliminary Hearing.

114 Shawn Ley, "How a Post Office Worker Became FBI’s Inside Man into Terrorism Plot Against Gov. Whitmer," ClickonDetroit, March 3, 2021, https://www.clickondetroit.com/news/local/2021/03/03/how-a-post-officer-worker-became-the-fbis-inside-man-into-the-terrorism-plot-against-whitmer/.

115 As-of publication, these three men had not yet faced trial. The date was set for 12 September 2022. See, Mitchell Kukulka, “Trial Scheduled for Jackson County Men Accused in Whitmer Kidnapping Plot,” Michigan Live, April 5, 2022, https://www.mlive.com/news/jackson/2022/04/trial-scheduled-for-jackson-county-men-accused-in-whitmer-kidnapping-plot.html.

116 United States of America vs Adam Dean Fox; and, Tesa Baldas and Arpan Lobo, "Defendant Daniel Harris tells jury: I ‘absolutely’ did not plot to kidnap Whitmer," Detroit Free Press, March 31, 2022, https://www.freep.com/story/news/local/michigan/2022/03/31/whitmer-kidnap-plot-suspect-daniel-harris-testimony/7228823001/.

117 Ibid.

118 Ibid.

119 United States of America vs Adam Dean Fox.

120 Daniel Harris was acquitted on 8 April 2022. See, Michael Krafcik, “No Convictions Against Four Men Charged in Gov. Whitmer Kidnapping Plot,” News Channel 3, April 8, 2022, https://wwmt.com/news/local/verdict-whitmer-kidnppaing-plot-kidnap-governor-adam-fox-barry-croft-daniel-harris-brandon-caserta-wolverine-watchmen-boogaloo-federal-court.

121 Abdel-Baqui and Guillen, "Informant Details Alleged Kidnap Plot.”

122 David Millward, "’The Law Had Failed’: Meet the Militia Groups Taking to the Streets Against Black Lives Matter," The Telegraph, August 30, 2020; and, Jocelyn Grzeszczak, "At Least 32 Boogaloo Adherents Present Day of Kenosha Shootings, Group Loyalist Says," Newsweek, September 1, 2020.

123 Adam Rogan, "Did Car Source ask for Armed Help During Kenosha Unrest? Witness Testimony Differs.” Lake Geneva Regional News (Wisconsin), 9 November 2021.

124 Millward, "’The law had failed’”; and, Deneen Smith, "Watch now: Kyle Rittenhouse trial continues with fourth day of testimony," Waterloo-Cedar Falls Courier, November 5, 2021; and, Ryan Balch, "This Is my Official Statement." Facebook. August 26, 2020, available at https://archive.ph/Ipz3Y#selection-1239.81-1241.49.

125 Ainara Tiefenthaler and Haley Willis, "Witnesses Recall Converging Paths that Led to a Deadly Clash." New York Times. November 11, 2021.

126 Ibid.

127 Millward, "The Law Had Failed.”

128 Joe Hernandez, "InfoWars Files for Bankruptcy in the Face of Lawsuits over Sandy Hook Shooting Denial." NPR (WAMU), April 18, 2022, https://www.npr.org/2022/04/18/1093297017/infowars-bankruptcy-alex-jones-sandy-hook-shooting-defamation; Paige Williams, "American Vigilante," The New Yorker, July 5, 2021: 30–53.

129 Millward, "The Law Had Failed,”; Amended Complaint and Demand for Jury.

130 Michael Edison Hayden, "Wisconsin Man Who Says He Marched With Rittenhouse in Kenosha Was Immersed in White Supremacist Propaganda." Hatewatch, August 30, 2020, https://www.splcenter.org/hatewatch/2020/08/30/wisconsin-man-who-says-he-marched-rittenhouse-kenosha-was-immersed-white-supremacist.

131 Ibid.

132 Williams, "American Vigilante”; and, Hernandez, "InfoWars.”

133 Rogan, "Did Car Source ask,”; and, Amended Complaint and Demand for Jury.

134 Smith, "Watch now: Kyle Rittenhouse trial.”

135 Ibid; and, Balch, "This Is my Official Statement."

136 Smith, "Watch Now: Kyle Rittenhouse trial,”; and, Eric Levenson, “Kyle Rittenhouse Trial.” CNN News, 1 November 2021, https://www.cnn.com/2021/11/01/us/kyle-rittenhouse-trial-kenosha/index.html

137 Beran, “The Boogaloo Tipping Point”; and, Devereaux and Biddle, "On Telegram.”

138 Millward, "The Law Had Failed.”

139 Ibid.

140 Balch, "This Is my Official Statement."

141 State of New Mexico vs. New Mexico Civil Guard, Bryce L. Spangler (A/K/A Bryce Provance, A/K/A Jason Bjorn), John C. Burks, Oryan Mikale Petty, Jonathan Michael Vera, Michael Lyn Harris, Thomas W. Gillespie, David Bernie Rose, Craig Porter Fitzgerald, Nic. D-202-CV-2020-040501 (County of Bernalillo Second Judicial District Court, July 13, 2020).

142 Patrick Hayes, "911 Calls Reveal Chaos During Juan De Oñate Protest, Shooting," KOB TV, July 28, 2020, https://www.kob.com/albuquerque-news/911-calls-reveal-chaos-during-juan-de-onate-protest-shooting/5809824/.

143 Elise Kaplan, "Charge Refiled Against Baca In Protest Shooting." Albuquerque Journal, July 13, 2020.

144 Ibid.

145 State of New Mexico vs. New Mexico Civil Guard; and, Hayes, "911 Calls Reveal Chaos.”

146 Ibid.

147 Ibid; and, Stan Alcorn, "The founder of New Mexico’s new militia was a neo-Nazi skinhead." New Mexico InDepth, August 2020, https://nmindepth.com/2020/the-founder-of-new-mexicos-new-militia-was-a-neo-nazi-skinhead/.

148 Simi and Futrell, American Swastika, 16–9.

149 Perliger, American Zealots, 48–51.

150 Ibid., 49.

151 Ibid.

152 Alcorn, "The Founder of New Mexico’s New Militia,”; Matthew Reisen, "NM Civil Guard is Marching Forward, Despite Calls to Stand Down." Albuquerque Journal, July 4, 2020; https://www.abqjournal.com/1472698/the-world-is-a-scary-place.html#foogallery-0/p:6; and, Claire Gofortht, "Militia group involved in New Mexico protest shooting claims deep ties with police." Daily Dot, June 17, 2020, https://www.dailydot.com/debug/new-mexico-civil-guard-police/.

153 Hampton Stall, "The Uprising, The Boog, and A Shooting," MilitiaWatch, June 16, 2020, https://medium.com/militiawatch/the-uprising-the-boog-and-a-shooting-caea37ab11f3; the full text of a similar muster was captured in a screen shot and posted here: https://www.democraticunderground.com/100213600613#post13.

154 Stall, "The Uprising.”

155 State of New Mexico vs. New Mexico Civil Guard.

156 Stall, "The Uprising”; Gofortht, "Militia group involved in New Mexico protest,”; Reisen, "NM Civil Guard is marching”; and, Algernon D’Ammassa, "Facebook deletes NM Civil Guard’s account," Las Cruces Sun-News (New Mexico), August 22, 2020.

157 Stall, "The Uprising.”

158 State of New Mexico vs. New Mexico Civil Guard.

159 D’Ammassa, "Facebook deletes NM Civil Guard’s account,”; and, Stall, "The Uprising.’

160 Ibid.

161 Algernon D’Ammassa, "New Mexico Civil Guard founder says he ‘shredded and burned everything’ during deposition," Las Cruces Sun News, April 17, 2022; https://news.yahoo.com/mexico-civil-guard-founder-says-110011644.html.

162 Gofortht, "Militia group involved.”

163 State of New Mexico vs. New Mexico Civil Guard.

164 D’Ammassa, "New Mexico Civil Guard founder.”

165 Alcorn, "The founder of New Mexico’s new militia.”

166 Southern Poverty Law Center. "Thomas Rousseau." No date, https://www.splcenter.org/fighting-hate/extremist-files/individual/thomas-rousseau.

167 Steven Orr, "Webster Youth Arraigned on Weapons Charge," Rochester Democrat and Chronicle, February 20, 2019.

168 Ibid; and, Kathleen McKiernan, "Lowell man among 3 arraigned in racist fliers." Sentinel and Enterprise, February 20, 2019.

169 Nate Homan, "Three Suspects Arraigned on Charges of Weapons Possession and Assaulting an Officer" Metro – Boston, February 19, 2019.

170 Orr, "Webster Youth Arraigned.”

171 Homan, "Three Suspects Arraigned,”; and, McKiernan, "Lowell Man Among 3 Arraigned.”

172 Ibid.

173 Ibid.

174 Adam Linehan, "Leader Of Charlottesville White Nationalist Group Was A Marine Corps Recruiter," Task & Purpose, August 14, 2017, https://taskandpurpose.com/news/leader-of-charlottesville-white-nationalist-group-was-a-marine-corps-recruiter/.

175 Ibid; and, Anna Merlan, "Leader of the Hate Group Linked to Charlottesville Attacker Was a Recruiter for the U.S. Marines," Splinter, August 14, 2017, https://splinternews.com/leader-of-the-hate-group-linked-to-charlottesville-atta-1797828772.

176 Denise Lavoie, "Jury awards $26M in damages for Unite the Right violence," AP News, November 23, 2021, https://apnews.com/article/violence-lawsuits-race-and-ethnicity-charlottesville-01d9437ec28ed71b4bae293d7e0d815d.

177 Southern Poverty Law Center. n.d. "Thomas Rousseau."

178 Christopher Mathias and Ali Winston, "Inside Patriot Front: The Masked White Supremacists On A Nationwide Hate Crime Spree." Huffington Post, February 10, 2022, https://www.huffpost.com/entry/patriot-front-white-supremacist-group-hate-crime-vandalism_n_620293abe4b0725faad01783; and, Chris Schiano and Dan Feidt, Patriot Front Fascist Leak Exposes Nationwide Racist Campaigns, Unicorn Riot, January 2022.

179 Schiano and Feidt, Patriot Front Fascist Leak.

180 Ibid; see also, Lydia Bates and Tracey Gale, "Flyering Remains A Recruitment Tool For Hate Groups," States News Service, Southern Poverty Law Center, February 1, 2021.

181 Ibid, see also, James LaPorta, "Marine Veteran Trains White Supremacists in Military Tactics; Patriot Front formed after Charlottesville, and leaked messages reveal members are getting trained like they’re in boot camp," The Daily Beast, June 11, 2018.

182 Schiano and Feidt, Patriot Front Fascist Leak.

183 Ibid.

184 Orr, "Webster Youth Arraigned;” Homan, "Three Suspects Arraigned;” and, McKiernan, "Lowell Man Among 3 Arraigned.”

185 Ibid.

186 Ibid.

187 Kira Ayyadi, "The "Gamification of Terror – When Hate Becomes a Game”," Bell Tower News, October 11, 2019, https://www.belltower.news/anti-semitic-attack-in-halle-the-gamification-of-terror-when-hate-becomes-a-game-92439/.

188 Fahey and Simi, “Pathways to Extremism,” 52.