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Abstract
This article analyses the intervention implemented with the five young offenders convicted of membership of a jihadist terrorist organization in Spain between 2014 and 2021. It provides an in-depth analysis of the psycho-socio and educational individualized programs conducted by the Agency for the Reeducation and Reintegration of Young Offenders in the regional Government of Madrid during the custodial measures of the minors, aged between fourteen and eighteen years. It is based on a thorough examination of the files and reports produced by the institution in charge of their reeducation and reintegration following the minors’ radicalization and detention, as well as semi-structured interviews with the professionals responsible for the intervention. This intervention, the first of its kind in the country, offers important insights and implications for future programs aimed at confronting the radicalization of minors and the risk of violent extremism.
Notes
1 Global Center on Cooperative Security and International Centre on Counter-Terrorism-The Hague, Correcting the Course. Advancing Juvenile Justice Principles for Children Convicted of Violent Extremism Offenses, September 2017; Frances Sheahan, Protecting Children’s Rights and Keeping Society Safe: How to Strengthen Justice Systems for Children in Europe in The Counter-Terrorism Context? (International Juvenile Justice Observatory, 2018).
2 For useful work on youth radicalization, see, for example, Adrian Cherney, Emma Belton, Siti Amirah Binte Norham, and Jack Milts, “Understanding Youth Radicalization: An Analysis of Australian Data,” Behavioral Sciences of Terrorism and Political Aggression 14, no. 2 (2022): 97–119; Alex Hirschfield, Kris Christmann, Aidan Wilcox, Michelle Rogerson, and Kathryn Sharratt, Process Evaluation of Preventing Violent Extremism Programmes for Young People (London: Youth Justice Board, 2012).
3 For example, Adrian Cherney, “Working with Radicalized Individuals: Insights from a Secondary and Tertiary Prevention Program,” Behavioral Sciences of Terrorism and Political Aggressio, DOI: 10.1080/19434472.2021.2013291 (2022); Adrian Cherney and Emma Belton, “The Evaluation of Case-managed Programs Targeting Individuals at Risk of Radicalization,” Terrorism and Political Violence, DOI: 10.1080/09546553.2021.1984236 (2021); Adrian Cherney and Emma Belton, “Assessing Intervention Outcomes Targeting Radicalized Offenders: Testing the Pro Integration Model of Extremist Disengagement as an Evaluation Tool,” Dynamics of Asymmetric Conflict 13, no. 3 (2020): 193–211; Amy-Jane Gielen, “Countering Violent Extremism: A Realist Review for Assessing What Works, for Whom, in What Circumstances, and How?,” Terrorism and Political Violence 31, no. 6 (2019): 1149–67; James Khalil and Martine Zeuthen, Countering Violent Extremism and Risk Reduction. A Guide to Programme Design and Evaluation (The Royal United Services Institute, RUSI, 2016).
4 Adrian Cherney and Emma Belton, op.cit. (2021), 1.
5 UN Committee on the Rights of the Child (CRC), General Comment No. 10 (2007): Children’s Rights in Juvenile Justice, 25 April 2007, CRC/C/GC/para. 10.
6 “Juvenile and Young Violent Extremist Offenders. Prison Study Visit to Wiesbaden and Frankfurt,” 7th–8th June 2018, Ex Post Paper, RAN Center of Excellence, Radicalization Awareness Network (RAN), p. 9.
7 UN Committee on the Rights of the Child (CRC), op.cit. (2007).
8 As established in Law 5/2000, of 12th January of the Criminal Responsibility of Minors.
9 Rogelio Alonso and Paul Delgado, “The Radicalization of Young Jihadi Convicted of Membership of Terrorist Organization in Spain: Analyzing the Pieces of the Puzzle,” Studies in Conflict & Terrorism, DOI: 10.1080/1057610X.2020.1780025 (2020).
10 Ibid., p. 3.
11 Ibid.
12 Ibid.
13 Ibid.
14 This is the case of a male detained in October 2019 which was sentenced in June 2020.
15 Article 2 of Law 3/2004 of 10th December setting up the Agency for the Reeducation and Reintegration of Young Offenders in the Autonomous Government of Madrid.
16 Guidance Document of Psycho-Educational Orientation and Functioning of Centers for the Implementation of Judicial Measures, internal document, Agency for the Reeducation and Reintegration of Young Offenders in the Autonomous Government of Madrid, 2014, pp. 27–8.
17 Law 5/2000, of 12th January of the Criminal Responsibility of Minors, Spanish Official Bulletin, nº 11, p. 1422.
18 Spanish Constitution, Article 25.
19 Law 5/2000, of 12th January of the Criminal Responsibility of Minors, op.cit., 1422.
20 Ibid., 1423.
21 Royal Decree 1774/2004, of 30th July, which approves the Regulation of Organic Law 5/2000, Spanish Official Bulletin, nº 209, p. 30127.
22 Law 5/2000, of 12th January of the Criminal Responsibility of Minors, op.cit., 1432.
23 Law 8/2006, of 4th December which modifies Law 5/2000, of the Criminal Responsibility of Minors, Spanish Official Bulletin, nº 290, p. 42703.
24 Article 3 of Law 3/2004 of 10th December setting up the Agency for the Reeducation and Reintegration of Young Offenders in the Autonomous Government of Madrid. Also relevant for the remit of this body is the Law 6/1995 of Guarantees for the Rights of Children and Youth in the Community of Madrid.
25 Spanish National Court, Juvenile Court, Sentencing of 24th April 2015. Reform File: 5/2014.
26 Spanish National Court, Juvenile Court, Sentence 14/2015, Sentencing of 18th December 2015. Reform File: 4/2015.
27 Spanish National Court, Juvenile Court, Sentence 12/2015, Sentencing of 16th November 2015. Reform File: 15/2014.
28 Spanish National Court, Juvenile Court, Court Proceedings 18th December 2015.
29 D. A. Andrews and James Bonta, The Psychology of Criminal Conduct (New Providence: LexisNexis Group, 2010), 45–78.
30 José Luis Graña and María José Rodríguez Biezma, Central Educational and Therapeutic Treatment Programme for Young Offenders (Community of Madrid’s Agency for the Reeducation and Reintegration of Young Offenders, 2010), 18.
31 These are the Spanish initials of the referred inventory which stand for Inventario de Gestión e Intervención para Jóvenes. Accordingly, the acronym “IGI-J” will be used throughout the article.
32 R. D. Hoge and D. A. Andrews, Youth Level of Service/Case Management Inventory (YLS-CMI) (Toronto: Multihealth Systems, 2003).
33 Graña and Rodríguez Biezma, op.cit. (2010), 20.
34 Ibid.
35 Information extracted from the interviews conducted by the technical team in charge of the intervention with the youth and her family as well as with social services in her municipality. Inventory for the Management and Intervention of the Youth, 11-08-2014.
36 Study Protocol of Remand Measures, register number 2956, 12/08/2014.
37 Information extracted from the interviews conducted by the technical team in charge of the intervention with the youth and her family. Inventory for the Management and Intervention of the Youth, 29-04-2015.
38 Information extracted from the interviews conducted by the technical team in charge of the intervention with the youth and her family. Inventory for the Management and Intervention of the Youth, 02-01-2015.
39 Information extracted from the interviews conducted by the technical team in charge of the intervention with the youths and her family. Inventory for the Management and Intervention of the Youth, 23-12-2015.
40 Information extracted from the interviews conducted by the technical team in charge of the intervention with the youth and her family as well as with social services in her municipality. Inventory for the Management and Intervention of the Youth, 11-08-2014.
41 Information extracted from the interviews conducted by the technical team in charge of the intervention with the youth and her family. Inventory for the Management and Intervention of the Youth, 29-04-2015.
42 Juvenile Central Court number 1, File number 4/15, Madrid, 10/04/2015, p. 7.
43 Information extracted from the interviews conducted by the technical team in charge of the intervention with the youth and her family. Inventory for the Management and Intervention of the Youth, 02-01-2015.
44 Information extracted from the interviews conducted by the technical team in charge of the intervention with the youths and her family. Inventory for the Management and Intervention of the Youth, 23-12-2015.
45 José Luis Graña, José Manuel Andreu, Luis González Cieza, Diseño, Desarrollo y Validación Psicométrica del PREVI-A. Predicción del Riesgo y Valoración de la Intervención en la ARRMI, Agencia de la Comunidad de Madrid para la Reeducación y Reinserción del Menor Infractor. Consejería de Presidencia, Justicia y Portavocía del Gobierno, Comunidad de Madrid, 2017.
46 Individualized intervention model, Reform File 5/2014, register number 2955, 12/08/2014, p. 6.
47 Office of the Prosecutor at the National Court, Preliminary Proceedings 7/14, Reform File 000005/2014, Madrid, 16/04/2015, pp. 5–7.
48 Juvenile Section of the Office of the Prosecutor, National Court, Preliminary Proceedings, 7/14, Reform file 000005/2014, 16/04/2015, pp. 5–7.
49 Individualized intervention model, Reform File 5/2014, register number 2955, 12/08/2014, p. 6; and Study Protocol of Remand Measures, register number 2956, 12/08/2014.
50 Individualized intervention model, Reform File 5/2014, register number 2955, 12/08/2014.
51 Interview by the authors with the technical team in charge of the intervention, 9th March 2016.
52 Interview by the authors with technical team, 16th February 2021.
53 Study Protocol of Remand Measures number 2225, 04/05/2015.
54 Ibid.
55 Ibid.
56 Individualized Model of Intervention, File number 5/2014, register number 2224, 04/05/2015.
57 Interview by the authors with technical team, 16th February 2021.
58 Ibid.
59 Individualized Model of Intervention, File number 5/2014, register number 2224, 04/05/2015.
60 Interview by the authors with technical team, 16th February 2021.
61 Study Protocol of Remand Measures, register number 49, 05/01/2015.
62 Michael Kenny, “Hotbed of Radicalization or Something Else? An Ethnographic Exploration of a Muslim Neighborhood in Ceuta,” Terrorism and Political Violence 23 (2011): 537–59; Javier Jordán and Humberto Trujillo, “Entornos favorables al reclutamiento yihadista: el barrio del Príncipe (Ceuta),” Jihad Monitor Occassional Paper nº 3, 22 November 2006; and Luis de la Corte, “¿Enclaves yihadistas? Un estudio sobre la presencia y el riesgo extremistas en Ceuta y Melilla,” Revista de Estudios en Seguridad Internacional 1, no. 2 (2015): 1–34.
63 Individualized intervention model, Reform File 50/2015, 05/08/2015.
64 Juvenile Central Court number 1, Judicial appearance 11/05/2015, File 0000015/2014, General Identification Number: 28079-26-2-2014-0100035.
65 Elizabeth Pearson, “Online as the New Frontline: Affect, Gender and ISIS Take-Down on Social Media,” Studies in Conflict & Terrorism 41, no. 11 (2018): 850–74.
66 Letter written by DAYFA during her stay at the youth detention center.
67 Elizabeth Pearson, “The Case of Roshonara Choudhry: Implications for Theory on Online Radicalization, ISIS Women, and the Gendered Jihad,” Policy and Internet (September 2015): 1–27, 17.
68 Interview by the authors with technical team, 16th February 2021.
69 Juvenile Central Court number 1, Sentence number 12/15, 16/11/2015.
70 Interview by the authors with technical team, 16th February 2021.
71 Juvenile Section of the Office of the Prosecutor at the National Court, file 2/15, 29/10/2015, pp. 8–10.
72 Review and Assessment Report, Individualized Model of Intervention, register number 3804, 20/07/2015.
73 Interview by the authors with technical team, 16th February 2021.
74 Ibid.
75 Judith S. Beck, Cognitive Behavior Therapy: Basics and Beyond (London: The Guilford Press, 2011), 30.
76 John Horgan and Kurt Braddock, “Rehabilitating the Terrorists?: Challenges in Assessing the Effectiveness of De-radicalization Programs,” Terrorism and Political Violence 22, no. 2 (2010): 267–91.
77 Ibid., 268.
78 Michael Williams and Steven Kleinman, “A Utilization-Focused Guide for Conducting Terrorism Risk Reduction Program Evaluations,” Behavioral Sciences of Terrorism and Political Aggression 6, no. 2 (2014): 102–46.
79 Khalil and Zeuthen, op.cit. (2016), 4.
80 Mary Beth Altier, Christian Thoroughgood, and John Horgan, “Turning Away from Terrorism: Lessons from Psychology, Sociology, and Criminology,” Journal of Peace Research 51, no. 5 (2014): 647–61.
81 Graña and Rodríguez Biezma, op.cit. (2010), 21–33.
82 Analysis of the Intervention Planning derived from the application of the IGI-J Tool and the register of activities, 11/08/2014, 5/06/2015; Spanish National Court, Juvenile Court, Sentencing of 24th April 2015, Reform File: 5/2014, 5.
83 Individualized Intervention Model, Reform File 5/2014, register number 2955, 12/08/2014; Assessment Report and Review of Individualized Model of Intervention, register number 4182, 20/11/2014; 916, 25/02/2015; Final Report of Remand Measures, register number 2440, 14/05/2015.
84 Ibid.
85 Ibid.
86 Register of participation in the Central Treatment Programme from 17/09/2014 to 25/02/2015.
87 Assessment Report and Review of Individualized Model of Intervention, register number 4182, 20/11/2014; Final Report of Remand Measures, register number 2440, 14/05/2015.
88 Individualized intervention model, Reform File 5/2014, register number 2955, 12/08/2014.
89 Assessment Report and Review of Individualized Model of Intervention, register number 4182, 20/11/2014.
90 Assessment Report and Review of Individualized Model of Intervention, register number 916, 25/02/2015; Final Report of Remand Measures, register number 2440, 14/05/2015.
91 Analysis of Intervention Planning derived from the application of the IGI-J Tool and register of activities, 29/04/15, 10/11/2016.
92 Spanish National Court, Juvenile Court, Court Proceedings 18th December 2015, 8.
93 Individualized Programme of Intervention, register number 121, 11/01/2016; 1747, 06/04/2016.
94 Final Report of Remand Measure, register number 6891, 31/12/2015; Assessment Reports and Review of the Individualized Programme, register number 1747, 06/04/16.
95 Final Report of Remand Measure, register number 6891, 31/12/2015.
96 Register of participation in the Central Treatment Programme from 16/03/2016 to 16/06/2016.
97 Assessment Reports and Review of the Individualized Programme, register number 1747, 6/04/2016; 3330, 06/07/16.
98 Assessment Reports and Review of the Individualized Programme, register number 1747, 06/04/2016.
99 Assessment Reports and Review of the Individualized Programme, register number 1747, 06/04/2016; 3330, 06/07/2016.
100 Analysis of Intervention Planning derived from the application of the IGI-J Tool and recording of activities, 02/01/2015, 17/06/2015.
101 Spanish National Court, Juvenile Court, Sentencing 12/2015, Sentencing of 16th November 2015, Reform File 15/2014.
102 Final Report of Remand Measure, register number 3067, 18/06/2015.
103 Assessment Report and Review Individualized Model of Intervention, register number 1859, 15/04/2015; Final Report of Remand Measure, register number 3067, 18/06/2015.
104 Ibid.
105 Ibid.
106 Ibid.
107 Graña and Rodríguez Biezma, op.cit. (2010), 243.
108 Analysis of Intervention planning derived from the application of the IGI-J Tool and recording of activities, 21/05/15, 29/12/2015.
109 Individualized Model of Intervention, register number 2086, 24/04/2015; Assessment Report and Review of Individualized Model of Intervention, register number 3805, 20/07/2015.
110 Assessment Reports and Review of Individualized Model of Intervention, register numbers 5567, 16/10/2015, 3804, 20/07/2015; Final Report of Remand Measure, register number 6837, 29/12/2015.
111 Model of Intervention, register number 2087, 24/04/2015; Assessment Report and Review of Individualized Model of Intervention, register numbers 3805 20/07/2015; 5567, 16/10/2015; Assessment Report and Review of Individualized Model of Intervention, register number 3804, 20/07/2015; 5566, 16/10/2015; Final Report of Remand Measure, register number 6836, 29/12/2015.
112 Final Report of Remand Measure, register number 6836, 29/12/2015.
113 Final Report of Remand Measure, register number 6837, 29/12/2015; 6836, 29/12/2015.
114 Lieke Wouterse and Maarten van de Donk, RAN Policy & Practice event on 8 November 2019 on “Evaluation of Exit Programmes,” Ex Post Paper. Evaluating Disengagement, Deradicalisation and Resocialisation Efforts, 3–4.
115 For example, when an objective or activity was assigned in the schooling programme and the minor was not able to attend due to illness.
116 Psychosocial Report, Reform File 5/2014, register number 4065, 11/11/2014, register number 1744, 10/04/2015; Final Report of Remand Measures, register number 2440, 14/05/2015, Final Report of Firm Sentencing, register number 2875, 05/06/2015.
117 Assessment Report and Review of Individualized Model of Intervention, register number 4182, 20/11/2014; Individualized Programme, register number 2533, 21/05/2015.
118 Psychosocial Report, Reform File 5/2014, register number 1744, 10/04/2015; Final Report of Firm Sentencing, register number 2875, 05/06/2015; Individualized Programme, register number 2553, 21/05/2015.
119 Psychosocial Report, Reform File 5/2014, register number 54/15, 05/01/2015; Assessment Report and Review of Individualized Model of Intervention, register number 4182, 20/11/2014; Final Report of Remand Measures, register number 2440, 14/05/2015.
120 Ibid.
121 Final Report of Remand Measures, register number 2440, 14/05/2015; Final Report of Firm Sentencing, register number 2875, 05/06/2015.
122 Psychosocial Report, Reform File 5/2014, register number 1744, 10/04/2015.
123 Psychosocial Reports, Reform File 5/2014, register numbers 54/15, 05/01/2015; 527, 03/02/2015, 1462, 24/03/2015; Final Report of Firm Sentencing, register number 2875, 05/06/2015.
124 Assessment Report and Review of the Individualized Model of Intervention, 17/09/2014; Final Report of Firm Sentencing, register number 2875, 07/06/2015.
125 Assessment Report and Review of the Individualized Model of Intervention, 17/09/2014.
126 Final Report of Firm Sentencing, register number 2875, 07/06/2015.
127 Individualized Programme, register number 2553, 21/05/2015; Final Report of Remand Measures, register number 2440, 14/05/2015; Final Report of Firm Sentencing, register number 2875, 07/06/2015.
128 Interview with technical team at juvenile center, 09/03/2016.
129 Psychosocial reports, Reform File 5/2014, register numbers 4286, 11/08/2015; 5111, 23/09/2015; Assessment Report and Review of the Individualized Model of Intervention, register number 5829, 30/10/2015; Final Report of Remand Measure, register number 6891, 31/12/2015.
130 Assessment Reports and Review of the Individualized Model of Intervention, register numbers 3964, 27/07/2015; 5829, 30/10/2015; Psychosocial Report Reform File 5/2014, register number 6122, 17/11/2015; Final Report of Remand Measure, register number 6891, 31/12/2015.
131 Psychosocial Reports, Reform File 5/2014, register number 5486, 13/10/2015; 6122, 17/11/2015.
132 Ibid.
133 Final Report of Remand Measure, register number 6891, 31/12/2015; Individualized Programme, register number 121, 11/01/2016.
134 Interview with technical team, 09/03/2016.
135 Ibid.
136 Ibid.
137 Psychosocial Report, Reform File 5/2014, register number 2594, 22/05/2015; Assessment Reports and Review of the Individualized Model of Intervention, register numbers 5829, 30/10/2015.
138 Final Report of Remand Measure, register number 6891, 31/12/2015; Individualized Programme, register number 121, 11/01/2016.
139 Ibid.
140 Ibid.
141 Individualized Model of Intervention, File number 5/2014, register number 2224, 04/05/2015.
142 Final Report of Remand Measure, register number 6891, 31/12/2015.
143 Interview with the technical team, 04/05/2016.
144 Assessment Report and Review Individualized Model of Intervention, register number 1859, 15/04/2015; Final Report of Remand Measure, register number 3067, 18/06/2015.
145 Final Report of Remand Measure, register number 3067, 18/06/2015.
146 Ibid.
147 Interview with the technical team, 04/05/2016.
148 Ibid.
149 Assessment Report and Review of Individualized Model of Intervention, register number 3805, 20/07/2015; Psychosocial Reports, Reform File 2/2015, register number 4979, 17/09/2015; 5567, 16/10/2015.
150 Psychosocial Report, Reform File 2/2015, register number 4979, 17/09/2015.
151 Final Report of Remand Measure, register number 6837, 29/12/2015.
152 Psychosocial Report, Reform File 2/2015, register number 6121, 17/11/2015.
153 Individualized Model of Intervention, register number 2087, 24/04/2015; Final Report of Firm Sentencing, register number 6837, 29/12/2015.
154 Assessment Report and Review of Individualized Model of Intervention, register number 5567, 16/10/2015.
155 Final Report of Remand Measure, register number 6837, 29/12/2015.
156 Ibid.
157 Psychosocial Reports, Reform File number 2/2015, register numbers 4188, 05/08/2015; 5531, 06/10/2015; 5898, 03/11/2015; Final Report of Remand Measure, register number 6836, 29/12/2015.
158 Psychosocial Reports, Reform File number 2/2015, register numbers 3052, 17/06/2015, 3411, 03/07/2015; 4188, 05/08/2015, 4769, 07/09/2015; Assessment Report and Review of Individualized Model of Intervention, register number 5566, 16/10/2015.
159 Psychosocial Report, Reform File number 2/2015, register numbers 6384, 02/12/2015; Final Report of Remand Measure, register number 6836, 29/12/2015.
160 Psychosocial Report, Reform File number 2/2015, register numbers 4448, 19/08/2015; 6123, 17/11/2015.
161 Final Report of Remand Measure, register number 6836, 29/12/2015.
162 Interview with the technical team, 04/05/2016.
163 Psychosocial Report, Reform File number 2/2015, register number 3052, 17/07/2015.
164 Psychosocial Reports, Reform File number 2/2015, register numbers 5898, 03/11/2015.
165 Final Report of Remand Measure, register number 6836, 29/12/2015.
166 Psychosocial Reports, Reform File number 2/2015, register numbers 5898, 03/11/2015.
167 Interview with the technical team, 04/05/2016.
168 Ibid.
169 Psychosocial Reports, Reform File number 2/2015, register numbers 5350, 06/10/2015.
170 Psychosocial Reports, Reform File number 2/2015, register numbers 5898, 03/11/2015; Psychosocial Reports, Reform File number 2/2015, register numbers 6123, 17/11/2015.
171 Final Report of Remand Measure, register number 6837, 29/12/2015.
172 “Juvenile and Young Violent Extremist Offenders. Prison Study Visit to Wiesbaden and Frankfurt,” 7th–8th June 2018, Ex Post Paper, RAN Center of Excellence, Radicalization Awareness Network (RAN), 9.
173 Sarah Marsden, “Conceptualising ‘Success’ with those Convicted of Terrorism Offences: Aims, Methods and Barriers to Reintegration,” Behavioral Sciences of Terrorism and Political Aggression 7, no. 2 (2015): 143–65.
174 María Teresa García Membrives, Rogelio Alonso, and Luis Cieza, MIREV-A: Modelo de Intervención para la Reducción de Riesgos asociados al Extremismo Violento-ARRMI (Agencia para la Reeducación y Reinserción del Menor Infractor, Comunidad de Madrid, 2022).
175 María Teresa García Membrives, Rogelio Alonso and Luis Cieza, Guía de Indicadores para la Detección y Tratamiento de la Radicalización de Etiología Yihadista (ARRMI), Agencia para la Reeducación y Reinserción del Menor Infractor, Comunidad de Madrid, 2019.
176 Rather than rating the evaluations with the previous criteria (implementation, development, reinforcement, finalized, interrupted), objectives and activities are now assessed as achieved, partially achieved, and not achieved.
177 Law 8/2006, of 4th December which modifies Law 5/2000, of the Criminal Responsibility of Minors, Spanish Official Bulletin, nº 290, p. 42704.
178 Agency for the Reeducation and Reintegration of Young Offenders, 2021 Annual Report, Consejería de Presidencia, Justicia e Interior, 75.
179 OSCAR was expelled in 2019 and THAMIR and CALEB in 2018. This is a decision that the judiciary can take after assessing intelligence reports that do not have to demonstrate the commission of terrorist offences but a strong degree of radicalization and a lack of integration in society, factors that may be deemed to pose a high security risk.
180 Travis Hirschi, Causes of Delinquency (Berkeley: The University of California, 1969), 16.