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Abstract
The number of violent extremists in prison and on probation in the United States is clearly increasing, highlighting the need for guidance and knowledge on how to best reintegrate this population. Using a mixed-methods approach comprised of interview and survey data, our study describes current resources, practices, and needs of federal probation officers managing individuals with a history of engagement in violent extremism. We identified three key issues relevant to the management of violent extremist releasees: mental health assistance, risk assessment tools, and recidivism rates.
Disclosure Statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).
Notes
1 Kevin D. Lowry, “Responding to the Challenges of Violent Extremism/Terrorism Cases for United States Probation and Pretrial Services,” Journal for Deradicalization 17 (Winter 2018/2019): 28–88.
2 U.S. Department of Justice, Federal Bureau of Investigation, Domestic Terrorism: Definitions, Terminology, and Methodology (November 2020).
3 U.S. Department of Justice and U.S. Department of Homeland Security, Strategic Intelligence Assessment and Data on Domestic Terrorism (October 2022), https://www.dhs.gov/sites/default/files/2022-10/22_1025_strategic-intelligence-assessment-data-domestic-terrorism.pdf.
4 U.S. Office of the Director of National Intelligence, U.S. Department of Justice, and U.S. Department of Homeland Security, Unclassified Summary of Assessment on Domestic Violent Extremism (17 March 2021).
5 U.S. Congress, Senate, Judiciary Committee, Oversight of the Federal Bureau of Investigation: The January 6 Insurrection, Domestic Terrorism, and Other Threats, 117th Cong., 1st sess., 2 March 2021.
6 Adrian Cherney and Emma Belton, “The Evaluation of Case-Managed Programs Targeting Individuals at Risk of Radicalisation,” Terrorism and Political Violence (2021), https://doi.org/10.1080/09546553.2021.1984236; Ahmad Saiful Rijal Bin Hassan, “Denmark’s De-Radicalisation Programme for Returning Foreign Terrorist Fighters,” Counter Terrorist Trends and Analyses 11, no. 3 (2019): 13–16, https://www.jstor.org/stable/26617829; Sulastri Osman, “Radicalisation, Recidivism and Rehabilitation: Convicted Terrorists and Indonesian Prisons,” in Prisons, Terrorism and Extremism: Critical Issues in Management, Radicalisation and Reform, ed. Andrew Silke (London: Routledge, 2013); Liesbeth van der Heide and Bart Schuurman, “Reintegrating Terrorists in the Netherlands: Evaluating the Dutch Approach,” Journal for Deradicalization, no. 17 (2018): 196–239, https://journals.sfu.ca/jd/index.php/jd/article/view/179; Hakeem Onapajo and Kemal Ozden, “Non‑Military Approach Against Terrorism in Nigeria: Deradicalization Strategies and Challenges in Countering Boko Haram,” Security Journal 33, no. 1 (2020), https://doi.org/10.1057/s41284-020-00238-2; Zubair Azam and Syeda Bareeha Fatima, “Mishal: A Case Study of a Deradicalization and Emancipation Program in SWAT Valley, Pakistan,” Journal for Deradicalization, no. 11 (2017): 1–29, https://journals.sfu.ca/jd/index.php/jd/article/view/97; Michael J. Williams and Samuel C. Lindsey, “A Social Psychological Critique of the Saudi Terrorism Risk Reduction Initiative,” Psychology, Crime & Law 20, no. 2 (2014): 135–51, https://doi.org/10.1080/1068316X.2012.749474.
7 Lowry, “Responding to the Challenges of Violent Extremism/Terrorism Cases.”
8 Ibid.
9 Nader Naderi, “Prisonization,” in The Encyclopedia of Criminology and Criminal Justice, ed. Jay S. Albanese (Oxford: Blackwell Publishing Ltd., 2014), 1–5.
10 Scott H. Decker and David C. Pyrooz, “The Imprisonment-Extremism Nexus: Continuity and Change in Activism and Radicalism Intentions in a Longitudinal Study of Prisoner Reentry,” PLoS ONE 15, no. 11 (2020), https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0242910.
11 Gary LaFree, Bo Jiang, and Lauren C. Porter, “Prison and Violent Political Extremism in the United States,” Journal of Quantitative Criminology 36 (2020): 473–98.
12 U.S. Office of the Director of National Intelligence, National Counterterrorism Center, “US Homegrown Violent Extremist Recidivism Likely,” National Counterterrorism Center Current (24 January 2017).
13 Note that there is not yet consensus on how to apply these public-health terms to violent extremism. For other approaches, see Daniel Koehler, “Terminology and Definitions,” in Routledge Handbook of Deradicalisation and Disengagement, ed. Stig Jarle Hansen and Stian Lid (New York: Routledge, 2020): 11–25; Adrian Cherney and Emma Belton, “Evaluating Case-Managed Approaches to Counter Radicalization and Violent Extremism: An Example of the Proactive Integrated Support Model (PRISM) Intervention,” Studies in Conflict & Terrorism 44, no. 8 (2021): 625–45; Ghayda Hassan, Sébastien Brouillette-Alarie, Sarah Ousman, D. Kilinc, W. Varela, L. Lavoie, and V. Venkatesh, A Systematic Review on the Outcomes of Tertiary Prevention Programs in the Field of Violent Radicalization (Montreal, QC: Canadian Practitioners Network for the Prevention of Radicalization and Extremist Violence, 2021), https://cpnprev.ca/wp-content/uploads/2021/11/Intervention-report-FINAL-2021.pdf; Ghayda Hassan, Sébastien Brouillette-Alarie, Sarah Ousman, D. Kilinc, W. Varela, L. Lavoie, and V. Venkatesh,A Systematic Review on the Outcomes of Primary and Secondary Prevention Programs in the Field of Violent Radicalization (Montreal, QC: Canadian Practitioners Network for the Prevention of Radicalization and Extremist Violence, 2021), https://cpnprev.ca/wp-content/uploads/2021/03/CPN-PREV-2nd-Systematic-Review-2.pdf; Joop T.V.M. De Jong, “A Public Health Framework to Translate Risk Factors Related to Political Violence and War into Multi-Level Preventive Interventions,” Social Science & Medicine 70, no. 1 (2010): 71–9, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2009.09.044.
14 Daniel Koehler, Understanding Deradicalization: Methods, Tools and Programs for Countering Violent Extremism (New York: Routledge, 2017); Hassan et al., A Systematic Review on the Outcomes of Tertiary Prevention Programs; Megan K. McBride, Marley Carroll, Jessa Mellea, Diána Hughes, and Elena Savoia, “Evaluating Terrorist and Extremist Reintegration Programming: A Systematic Literature Review,” Journal for Deradicalization 32 (2022): 35–75.
15 Andrew Silke and Tinka Veldhuis, “Countering Violent Extremism in Prisons: A Review of Key Recent Research and Critical Research Gaps,” Perspectives on Terrorism 11, no. 5 (2017): 2–11, https://www.jstor.org/stable/26297927; Isabella Pistone, Erik Eriksson, Ulrika Beckman, Christer Mattson, and Morten Sager, “A Scoping Review of Interventions for Preventing and Countering Violent Extremism: Current Status and Implications for Future Research,” Journal for Deradicalization, no. 19 (2019), https://journals.sfu.ca/jd/index.php/jd/article/view/213.
16 See Zora A. Sukabdi, “Terrorism in Indonesia: A Review on Rehabilitation and Deradicalization,” Journal of Terrorism Research 6, no. 2 (2015): 36–56, http://doi.org/10.15664/jtr.1154; Arie W. Kruglansk, Michele J. Gelfand, Jocelyn J. Bélanger, Rohan Gunaratna, and Malkanthi Hettiarachchi, “De-Radicalising the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE): Some Preliminary Findings,” in Prisons, Terrorism and Extremism: Critical Issues in Management, Radicalisation and Reform, ed. Andrew Silke (London: Routledge, 2013): 183–96; Michelle Dugas and Arie W. Kruglanski, “The Quest for Significance Model of Radicalization: Implications for the Management of Terrorist Detainees,” Behavioral Sciences and the Law 32, no. 3 (2014): 423–39, https://doi.org/10.1002/bsl.2122; Bart Schuurman and Edwin Bakker, “Reintegrating Jihadist Extremists: Evaluating a Dutch Initiative, 2013–2014,” Behavioral Sciences of Terrorism and Political Aggression 8, no. 1 (2016): 66–85, https://doi.org/10.1080/19434472.2015.1100648.
17 John F. Morrison, Andrew Silke, Heidi Maiberg, Chloe Slay and Rebecca Stewart, A Systematic Review Of Post-2017 Research On Disengagement And Deradicalisation (Lancaster, UK: Centre for Research and Evidence on Security Threats, 2021), 29, https://crestresearch.ac.uk/resources/a-systematic-review-of-post-2017-research-on-disengagement-and-deradicalisation/.
18 See Azam and Fatima, “Mishal: A Case Study of a Deradicalization and Emancipation Program in SWAT Valley, Pakistan”; Patrizia Meringolo, Nicolina Bosco, Cristina Cecchini, and Elisa Guidi, “Preventing Violent Radicalization in Italy: The Actions of EU Project PROVA,” Peace and Conflict: Journal of Peace Psychology 25, no. 2 (2019): 165–9, https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1037/pac0000375.
19 See Cherney and Belton, “Evaluating Case-Managed Approaches to Counter Radicalization and Violent Extremism”; David Webber, Marina Chernikova, Arie W. Kruglanski, Michele J. Gelfand, Malkanthi Hettiarachchi, Rohan Gunaratna, Marc‐Andre Lafreniere, and Jocelyn J. Belanger, “Deradicalizing Detained Terrorists,” Political Psychology 39, no. 3 (2018): 539–56, https://www.jstor.org/stable/45095190.
20 For an exception, see Michael J. Williams, John G. Horgan, and William P. Evans, “Evaluation of a Multi-Faceted, U.S. Community-Based, Muslim-Led CVE Program,” (2016), https://www.ojp.gov/pdffiles1/nij/grants/249936.pdf.
21 See Marsden, “Conceptualising ‘Success’ with Those Convicted of Terrorism Offences”; Kruglanski et al., “De-Radicalising the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE)”; Michael J. Williams, John G. Horgan, and William P. Evans, “The Critical Role of Friends in Networks for Countering Violent Extremism: Toward a Theory of Vicarious Help-Seeking,” Behavioral Sciences of Terrorism and Political Aggression 8, no. 1 (2016): 45–65, https://doi.org/10.1080/19434472.2015.1101147.
22 Hassan et al., A Systematic Review on the Outcomes of Tertiary Prevention Programs; Hassan et al., A Systematic Review on the Outcomes of Primary and Secondary Prevention Programs.
23 Among the evaluation studies of primary and secondary interventions, eight studies reported mostly negative outcomes, while remaining had mixed outcomes. Importantly, all negative assessments were related to the UK’s national PVE strategy PREVENT. See Hassan et al., A Systematic Review on the Outcomes of Primary and Secondary Prevention Programs.
24 Among the evaluation studies of tertiary interventions, seven reported mixed outcomes, and one declared mostly negative outcomes. Hassan et al., A Systematic Review on the Outcomes of Tertiary Prevention Programs.
25 Morrison et al., A Systematic Review Of Post-2017 Research On Disengagement And Deradicalisation.
26 Ibid.
27 Martine Zeuthen, Reintegration: Disengaging Violent Extremists - A Systematic Literature Review of Effectiveness of Counter-Terrorism and Preventing and Countering Violent Extremism Activities (The Hague: Policy and Operations Evaluation Department of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Netherlands, 2021), 16.
28 Hassan, et al, A Systematic Review on the Outcomes of Tertiary Prevention Programs; Zeuthen, Reintegration: Disengaging Violent Extremists; Pistone et al., “A Scoping Review of Interventions for Preventing and Countering Violent Extremism”; Cherney and Belton, “Evaluating Case-Managed Approaches to Counter Radicalization and Violent Extremism”; Schuurman and Bakker, “Reintegrating Jihadist Extremists”; Morrison et al., A Systematic Review Of Post-2017 Research On Disengagement And Deradicalisation.
29 Daniel Koehler, “How and Why We Should Take Deradicalization Seriously,” Nature Human Behaviour 1 (2017): 1–4.
30 Barbara Bowers, Lauren W. Cohen, Amy E. Elliot, David C. Grabowski, Nancy W. Fishman, Siobhan S. Sharkey, Sheryl Zimmerman, Susan D. Horn, and Peter Kemper, “Creating and Supporting a Mixed Methods Health Services Research Team,” Health Services Research 48, no. 6 part II (2013), doi:10.1111/1475-6773.12118.
31 Daniel J. Harris, Pete Simi & Gina Ligon, “Reporting Practices of Journal Articles that Include Interviews with Extremists,” Studies in Conflict & Terrorism 39, nos. 7–8 (2016): 602–16.
32 Christopher T. Lowenkamp, Alexander M. Holsinger, and Thomas H. Cohen, “PCRA Revisited: Testing the Validity of the Federal Post Conviction Risk Assessment (PCRA),” Psychological Services 12, no. 2 (2015): 149–57, https://doi.org/10.1037/ser0000024.
33 For especially dangerous offenders, probation officers are allowed to override the results. There are two types of overrides available to probation officers. Policy overrides are available when the offender is in a specified category of high-risk offenders (e.g., sex offenders). Discretionary overrides are used when the offender does not fall into a specified category, but the officer nonetheless believes that more intensive supervision is required. See Thomas H. Cohen, Bailey Pendergast, and Scott W. VanBenschoten, “Examining Overrides of Risk Classifications for Offenders on Federal Supervision,” Federal Probation: A Journal of Correctional Philosophy and Practice 80, no. 1 (June 2016), https://www.uscourts.gov/federal-probation-journal/2016/06/examining-overrides-risk-classifications-offenders-federal.
34 David B. Wilson, Leana Allen Bouffard, and Doris L. MacKenzie, “A Quantitative Review of Structured, Group-Oriented, Cognitive-Behavioral Programs for Offenders,” Criminal Justice and Behavior 32, no. 2 (2005): 172–204; Correctional Counseling, Inc., “Our Story - Moral Reconation Therapy,” CCI MRT, https://www.ccimrt.com/about/our-story/ (accessed 6 August 2022).
35 Doris J. James and Lauren E. Glaze, “Mental Health Problems of Prison and Jail Inmates,” Bureau of Justice Statistics Special Report (September 2006): 12; Josiah D. Rich, R. Chandler, B. A. Williams, D. Dumont, E. A. Wang, F. S. Taxman, S. A. Allen, J. G. Clarke, R. B. Greifinger, C. Wildeman, and F. C. Osher, “How Health Care Reform Can Transform the Health of Criminal Justice–Involved Individuals,” Health Affairs (Project Hope) 33, no. 3 (March 2014): 462–7, https://doi.org/10.1377/hlthaff.2013.1133. The existence of mental health problems was assessed via interviews with inmates and was based on symptoms specified in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-IV), clinical diagnosis, or treatment by a mental health professional (yielding a higher prevalence of mental illness than is reported by clinicians working in prisons).
36 “About Mental Health,” Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 23 November 2021, https://www.cdc.gov/mentalhealth/learn/index.htm; U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration, Key Substance Use and Mental Health Indicators in the United States: Results from the 2019 National Survey on Drug Use and Health, by Beth Han, HHS Publication No. PEP20-07-01-001, NSDUH Series H-55 (Rockville, MD: Center for Behavioral Health Statistics and Quality, 2019), 44.
37 James and Glaze, “Mental Health Problems of Prison,” 12.
38 Gary LaFree, Michael A. Jensen, Patrick A. James, and Aaron Safer-Lichtenstein, “Correlates of Violent Political Extremism in the United States,” Criminology 56, no. 2 (2018): 233–68.
39 Kiran M. Sarma, Sarah L. Carthy, and Katie M. Cox, “Mental Disorder, Psychological Problems and Terrorist Behaviour: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis,” Campbell Systematic Reviews 18, no. 3 (2022).
40 Paul Gill, John Horgan, and Paige Deckert, “Bombing Alone: Tracing the Motivations and Antecedent Behaviors of Lone-Actor Terrorists,” Journal of Forensic Sciences 59, no. 2 (2014): 425–35, https://doi.org/10.1111/1556-4029.12312; Jeff Gruenewald, Steven Chermak, and Joshua D. Freilich, “Distinguishing Loner Attacks from Other Domestic Extremist Violence: A Comparison of Far-Right Homicide Incident and Offender Characteristics,” Criminology & Public Policy 12, no. 1 (2013): 65–91, https://doi.org/10.1111/1745-9133.12008; Emily Corner and Paul Gill, “A False Dichotomy? Mental Illness and Lone-Actor Terrorism,” Law and Human Behavior 39, no. 1 (February 2015): 23–34, https://doi.org/10.1037/lhb0000102.
41 Ronald Kessler and T. Bedirhan Üstün, The WHO World Mental Health Surveys: Global Perspectives on the Epidemiology of Mental Disorders (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2008).
42 “Post Conviction Risk Assessment,” United States Courts, https://www.uscourts.gov/services-forms/probation-and-pretrial-services/supervision/post-conviction-risk-assessment (last accessed 1 March 2022); Cohen, Pendergast, and VanBenschoten, “Examining Overrides of Risk Classifications”; Lowenkamp, Holsinger, and Cohen, “PCRA Revisited.”
43 Liesbeth van der Heide, Marieke van der Zwan, and Maarten van Leyenhorst, “The Practitioner’s Guide to the Galaxy - A Comparison of Risk Assessment Tools for Violent Extremism,” International Centre for Counter-Terrorism (9 September 2019): 3, https://icct.nl/publication/the-practitioners-guide-to-the-galaxy-a-comparison-of-risk-assessment-tools-for-violent-extremism/. See also John Monahan, “The Individual Risk Assessment of Terrorism,” Psychology, Public Policy and Law 18, no. 2 (2012): 167–202; Randy Borum, “Assessing Risks for Terrorism Involvement,” Journal of Threat Assessment and Management 2, no. 2 (2015): 63–87. Cited in van der Heide, van der Zwan, and van Leyenhorst.
44 Cohen, Pendergast, and VanBenschoten, “Examining Overrides of Risk Classifications.”
45 van der Heide, van der Zwan, and van Leyenhorst, “The Practitioner’s Guide to the Galaxy.”
46 Martine Herzog-Evans, “A Comparison of Two Structured Professional Judgment Tools for Violent Extremism and Their Relevance in the French Context,” European Journal of Probation 10, no. 1 (2018): 3–27, https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/2066220317749140.
47 Herzog-Evans, “A Comparison of Two Structured Professional Judgment Tools for Violent Extremism.”
48 Lowry, “Responding to the Challenges of Violent Extremism/Terrorism Cases,” 77.
49 Ibid.
50 Gina S. Ligon et al., “Risk Assessment for Reentry Considerations of United States Federally Incarcerated Violent Extremists,” Final Report to the Department of Homeland Security, Office of University Programs, submitted to The Center for Accelerating Operational Efficiency at Arizona State University, a DHS Center of Excellence (2019), 6.
51 Beverly Powis, Kiran Randhawa-Horne, and Darren Bishopp, “An Examination of the Structural Properties of the Extremism Risk Guidelines (ERG 22+): A Structured Formulation Tool for Extremist Offenders,” Terrorism and Political Violence 33, no. 6 (2021): 1141–59, https://doi.org/10.1080/09546553.2019.1598392. Cited in Hughes, “Calculating and Managing Risk,” 47. For a fascinating discussion of their developers’ contradictory descriptions of the goals of VERA 2R and ERG 22+, see Herzog-Evans, “A Comparison of Two Structured Professional Judgment Tools.”
52 Christopher Wright, “An Examination of Jihadi Recidivism Rates in the United States,” CTC Sentinel 12, no. 10 (2019): 26–31, https://ctc.usma.edu/examination-jihadi-recidivism-rates-united-states/; Mary Beth Altier, Emma Leonard Boyle, and John G. Horgan, “Returning to the Fight: An Empirical Analysis of Terrorist Reengagement and Recidivism,” Terrorism and Political Violence 33, no. 4 (2019): 836–60, https://doi.org/10.1080/09546553.2019.1679781.
53 Thomas Renard, “Overblown: Exploring the Gap between the Fear of Terrorist Recidivism and the Evidence,” CTC Sentinel 13, no. 4 (2020): 19–29, https://www.ctc.usma.edu/overblown-exploring-the-gap-between-the-fear-of-terrorist-recidivism-and-the-evidence/.
54 Badi Hasisi, Tomer Carmel, David Weisburd, and Michael Wolfowicz, “Crime and Terror: Examining Criminal Risk Factors for Terrorist Recidivism,” Journal of Quantitative Criminology 36 (2019): 449, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10940-019-09415-y.
55 Ian Acheson, “Are We Any Closer to Stopping the Next Usman Khan?,” The Spectator, November 2020, https://www.spectator.co.uk/article/are-we-any-closer-to-stopping-the-next-usman-khan-.
56 Tanya Mehra and Julie Coleman, “Vienna Attack: The Path of a Prospective (Foreign) Terrorist Fighter,” International Centre for Counter-Terrorism (16 November 2020), https://icct.nl/publication/vienna-attack-the-path-of-a-prospective-foreign-terrorist-fighter/; Douglas Weeks, “Lessons Learned from UK Efforts to Deradicalize Terror Offenders,” CTC Sentinel 14, no. 3 (March 2021), https://www.ctc.usma.edu/lessons-learned-from-u-k-efforts-to-deradicalize-terror-offenders/; Rajan Basra and Peter R. Neumann, “Case Study 5: Usman Khan,” in Prisons and Terrorism: Extremist Offender Management in 10 European Countries (London: International Centre for the Study of Radicalisation, 2020), 46–8, https://icsr.info/wp-content/uploads/2020/07/ICSR-Report-Prisons-and-Terrorism-Extremist-Offender-Management-in-10-European-Countries_V2.pdf; Robert F. Worth, “Freed by the U.S., Saudi Becomes a Qaeda Chief,” The New York Times, 22 January 2009, https://www.nytimes.com/2009/01/23/world/middleeast/23yemen.html.
57 Jonathan Shay, Achilles in Vietnam: Combat Trauma and the Undoing of Character (New York: Scribner, 1994). This book sparked a whole literature on combat-related PTSD.
58 Ursula M. Wilder, “Inside the Inferno: Counterterrorism Professionals Reflect on their Work,” Studies in Intelligence 58, no. 4 (Unclassified Extracts, 2014): 3–17, https://www.hsdl.org/?view&did=811629. Although this article does not discuss probation officers per se, it discusses trauma among other types of non–combat-related counterterrorism professionals.
59 Christopher T. Lowenkamp and Edward J. Latessa, “Understanding the Risk Principle: How and Why Correctional Interventions Can Harm Low-Risk Offenders,” Topics in Community Corrections (2004): 3–8; D. A. Andrews and Craig Dowden, “Risk Principle of Case Classification in Correctional Treatment: A Meta-Analytic Investigation,” International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology 50, no. 1 (2006): 88–100; Jordan M. Hyatt and Geoffrey C. Barnes, “An Experimental Evaluation of the Impact of Intensive Supervision on the Recidivism of High-Risk Probationers,” Crime & Delinquency 63, no. 1 (2017): 3–38; Jennifer L. Doleac, “Strategies to Productively Reincorporate the Formerly-Incarcerated into Communities: A Review of the Literature,” IZA - Institute of Labor Economics Discussion Paper Series, no. 11646 (June 2018), https://docs.iza.org/dp11646.pdf.
60 Interview with Paul Brennan, Probation Administrator, Probation and Pretrial Services Office Administrative Office of the U.S. Courts, 7 June 2022.
61 Diána R. Hughes, “Calculating and Managing Risk: Risk Assessment Tools for Violent and Non-Violent Extremist Offenders,” submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of International Affairs with a Specialization in Security Studies, Pardee School of Global Studies, Boston University, April 2021.
62 Under a different NIJ grant, our research team will be studying whether training probation officers and NGO-based interventionists in behavioral therapy has utility in reintegrating former extremist offenders. See “Evaluability Assessment and Development of Psychological and Behavioral Health Approaches to Prevent Terrorism and Facilitate Reintegration of Violent Extremists,” National Institute of Justice, 22 October 2021, https://nij.ojp.gov/funding/awards/15pnij-21-gg-02727-domr.