The Zerkani Network and the 2015 Paris and 2016 Brussels Attacks: An Illustration of Counter-Terrorism Dysfunction in Europe

Abstract

This article recounts the events surrounding the November 2015 Paris and March 2016 Brussels attacks, as it follows the Zerkani network that perpetrated them and scrutinizes the governance responses therein. It demonstrates that the events surrounding the attacks involved law enforcement and intelligence from several EU Member States, who failed to cooperate adequately, implying that better preparedness and cooperation may have yielded different results in tackling the Zerkani network and demonstrating the functional necessity of European cooperation on counter-terrorism. This article argues that, as a result of the failures and missed opportunities preceding and surrounding the Paris and Brussels attacks, a European counter-terrorism and intelligence culture has developed due to the realization of national CT practitioners that cooperation among them was necessary to tackle the threat.

Disclosure Statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).

Notes

1 Artur Gruszczak, “EU Intelligence-Led Policing: The Case of Counter-Terrorism Cooperation,” in New Challenges for the EU Internal Security Strategy, ed. Maria O’Neill, Ken Swinton, and Aaron Winter (Newcastle upon Tyne: Cambridge Scholars Publishing, 2013), 32; Bjorn Müller-Wille, “For Our Eyes Only? Shaping an Intelligence Community Within the EU,” European Union Institute for Security Studies (2004); Bjorn Fägersten, “Bureaucratic Resistance to International Intelligence Cooperation – The Case of Europol,” Intelligence and National Security 25, no. 4 (2010): 500–20, 506–7. Doi: 10.1080/02684527.2010.537028.

2 Raphael Bossong and Hendrik Hegemann, “The Governance of Internal Security: Beyond Functionalism and the Finality of Integration,” in The Routledge Handbook of Justice and Home Affairs Research, ed. Ariadna Ripoll Servant and Florian Trauner (New York: Routledge, 2018), 24–5; Christian Kaunert, Sarah Léonard and John D. Occhipinti, “Agency Governance in the European Union’s Area of Freedom, Security and Justice,” Perspectives on European Politics and Society 14, no. 3 (2013): 273–84. Doi: 10.1080/15705854.2013.817806; Javier Argomaniz, “Before and after Lisbon: Legal Implementation as the “Achilles Heel” in EU Counter-Terrorism?,” European Security 19, no. 2 (2010): 297–316. Doi: 10.1080/09662839.2010.532209; Fägersten, “Bureaucratic Resistance” [see note 1].

3 Müller-Wille, 2004, 17–19 [see note 1]; Oldrich Bures, “EU Counterterrorism Policy: A Paper Tiger?” (Aldershot: Ashgate Publishing, Ltd., 2011), 72.

4 John D. Occhipinti, “Availability by Stealth? EU Information-Sharing in Transatlantic Perspective,” in European Security, Terrorism and Intelligence: Tackling New Security Challenges in Europe, Palgrave Studies in European Union Politics, ed. Christian Kaunert and Sarah Léonard (London: Palgrave Macmillan UK, 2013), 143–84, https://doi.org/10.1057/9781137314734_7; Bjorn Fägersten, “For EU Eyes Only? Intelligence and European Security,” European Union Institute for Security Studies, no. 8 (2016): 2, https://www.iss.europa.eu/sites/default/files/EUISSFiles/Brief_8_EU_Intelligence_Cooperation.pdf (accessed 2 May 2019); Stephen Lander, “International Intelligence Cooperation: An Inside Perspective,” Cambridge Review of International Affairs 17, no. 3 (2004): 492. doi: 10.1080/0955757042000296964; James I. Walsh, “Intelligence-Sharing in the European Union: Institutions Are Not Enough*,” JCMS: Journal of Common Market Studies 44, no. 3 (2006): 625–43. doi: 10.1111/j.1468-5965.2006.00638.x.; Müller-Wille, 2004, 15–19 [see note 1].

5 Ibid.

6 Christoph O. Meyer, “International Terrorism as a Force of Homogenization? A Constructivist Approach to Understanding Cross-National Threat Perceptions and Responses,” Cambridge Review of International Affairs 22, no. 4 (2009): 660–4. doi: 10.1080/09557570903325462.

7 Raphael Bossong, The Evolution of EU Counter-Terrorism: European Security Policy after 9/11 (Abingdon: Routledge Chapman & Hall, 2013).

8 Jörg Monar, “EU Internal Security Governance: The Case of Counter-Terrorism,” European Security 23, no. 2 (2014): 199. doi: 10.1080/09662839.2013.856308.

9 Kenneth Lasoen, “For Belgian Eyes Only: Intelligence Cooperation in Belgium,” International Journal of Intelligence and Counter-Intelligence 30, no. 3 (2017): 478, https://doi.org/10.1080/08850607.2017.1297110; Kenneth Lasoen, “Plan B(ruxellles): Belgian Intelligence and the Terrorist Attacks of 2015-16,” Terrorism and Political Violence 32, no. 6 (2020): 1291–309. doi: 10.1080/09546553.2018.1464445; Pieter Van Ostaeyen, “Belgian Radical Networks and the Road to the Brussels Attacks,” Combating Terrorism Center at West Point, (2016), 9, https://ctc.usma.edu/belgian-radical-networks-and-the-road-to-the-brussels-attacks/ (accessed 17 December 2020); Fägersten, “For EU Eyes Only?” [see note 4].

10 Lasoen, “Plan B(ruxellles)” [see note 9]; Interview n.35, 38, 33, 19.

11 Cameron Glenn et al., “Timeline: The Rise, Spread, and Fall of the Islamic State,” Wilson Center, 28 October 2019. https://www.wilsoncenter.org/article/timeline-the-rise-spread-and-fall-the-islamic-state (accessed 3 August 2021).

12 Interview n.38, 33.

13 Interview n.38, 35.

14 Interview n.38.

15 Guy Van Vlierden and Pieter Van Ostaeyen, “The Role of Belgian Fighters in the Jihadification of the Syrian War,” European Foundation for Democracy (2017), 3. http://europeandemocracy.eu/wp-content/uploads/2017/02/The-Role-of-Belgian-Fighters-in-the-Jihadification-of-the-Syrian-War.pdf (accessed 4 November 2020).

16 Interview n.35, 38.

17 Interview n.38, 33, 19, 27.

18 Rukmini Callimachi, “Isis Sent Operatives to Europe Long before Brussels Attacks,” The Irish Times, 29 March 2016. https://www.irishtimes.com/news/world/europe/isis-sent-operatives-to-europe-long-before-brussels-attacks-1.2590854 (accessed 26 April 2020).

19 Lasoen, “Plan B(ruxellles),” 1297 [see note 9].

20 Interview n.35, 38.

21 Ibid.

22 Lasoen, “For Belgian Eyes Only” [see note 9].

23 Lasoen, “Plan B(ruxellles),” 1294 [see note 9]. VSSE allegedly had its less than 600 staff observe at least 900 persons of interest, some of which required 24-hour surveillance; Ryan Heath, Zoya Sheftalovich, and Chris Spillane, “Belgium’s 12 Worst Terror Misses, Mistakes and Misunderstandings,” Politico, 29 March 2016. https://www.politico.eu/article/the-dirty-dozen-12-mistakes-that-condemned-brussels-to-terror-attacks-isil/ (accessed 29 August 2018); Patrick Bury, “Brussels Attacks: Belgian Intelligence Service Seen as Weak Link in Europe,” The Irish Times, 22 March 2016. https://www.irishtimes.com/opinion/brussels-attacks-belgian-intelligence-service-seen-as-weak-link-in-europe-1.2583514 (accessed 26 April 2020).

24 The committee in charge of overview and oversight of the work of the state intelligence services, both in terms of legality and efficiency.

25 Belgian Standing Intelligence Agencies Review Committee, “Activity Report 2014. Activity Report 2015. Review Investigations, Control of Special Intelligence Methods and Recommendations” (Cambridge et al.: Intersentia, 2017).

26 Ibid., 14.

27 Ibid.

28 Lasoen, “Plan B(ruxellles),” 1292 [see note 9].

29 Recommendation 4, 6 and 7, listed in Council Document 12168/3/05 REV 3, 18 November 2005.

30 Ibid., 3.

31 Ibid.; Lasoen, “For Belgian Eyes Only,” 481 [see note 9].

32 Lasoen, “Plan B(ruxellles),” 1296–7 [see note 9].

33 Interview n.34, 38, 35, 36.

34 Vivienne Walt, “Belgium’s Security Failures Made the Brussels Attacks All But Inevitable,” Time Magazine, 23 March 2016. https://time.com/4269505/brussels-attacks-security-failure-belgium/ (accessed 5 January 2019).

35 Interview n.38, 19, 33.

36 Interview n.33.

37 Interview n.35; Lasoen, “For Belgian Eyes Only,” 481 [see note 9].

38 Ibid.

39 Van Ostaeyen, “Belgian Radical Networks,” 9 [see note 9].

40 Ibid.

41 Ibid.

42 Ibid.

43 Ibid.

44 Van Ostaeyen, “Belgian Radical Networks,” 7 [see note 9].

45 Ibid., Interview n.33.

46 Paul Cruickshank, “A View from the CT Foxhole: An Interview with Alain Grignard, Brussels Federal Police,” Volume 8, Issue 8, p. 8. West Point (New York: Combatting Terrorism Center, 2015). https://ctc.usma.edu/a-view-from-the-ct-foxhole-an-interview-with-alain-grignard-brussels-federal-police/ (accessed 27 June 2018).

47 Ibid., Interview n.33.

48 Interview n.16, 30, 38.

49 Interview n.38, Sebastian Rotella, “How Europe Left Itself Open to Terrorism,” Frontline, 18 October 2016-a. https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/frontline/article/how-europe-left-itself-open-to-terrorism/ (accessed 3 October 2017).

50 Interview n.19.

51 Ibid.

52 Sebastian Rotella, Dan Edge, and Ricardo Pollack, “Terror in Europe,” Public Broadcasting Service (PBS), Frontline (2016). Video. https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/frontline/film/terror-in-europe/ (accessed 21 April 2017).

53 Ibid., The BBC, “Belgian jihadist Atar ‘Co-Ordinated’ Paris and Brussels Attacks,” The British Broadcasting Corporation, 8 November 2016-a. https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-37906961 (accessed 30 June 2018).

54 Interview n.19.

55 Rotella, “How Europe Left Itself Open” [see note 49].

56 Paul Cruickshank, “The Inside Story of the Paris and Brussels Attacks,” Cable News Network (CNN) (2017). https://edition.cnn.com/2016/03/30/europe/inside-paris-brussels-terror-attacks/index.html (accessed 20 April 2018).

57 Interview n.19, 38.

58 Peter Allen and Sam Webb, “French Islamic Terrorist Suspect’s Alleged Plot Foiled after He Shot Himself in Leg,” Daily Mirror, 23 April 2015. https://www.mirror.co.uk/news/world-news/french-islamic-terrorist-suspects-alleged-5566913 (accessed 26 July 2019).

59 Rotella, Edge, and Pollack, “Terror in Europe” [see note 52].

60 Interview n.38, 19; Rotella, “How Europe Left Itself Open” [see note 49].

61 France 24, “Trial of Verviers Terror Cell Suspects Opens in Brussels,” France 24, 9 May 2016. https://www.france24.com/en/20160509-trial-verviers-terror-cell-suspects-opens-brussels (accessed 3 August 2019).

62 Rotella, Edge, and Pollack, “Terror in Europe” [see note 52]; Belgian Parliamentary Inquiry, “Enquête Parliamentaire chargée d’examiner les circonstances qui ont conduit aux attentats terroristes du 22 mars 2016 dans l’aéroport de Bruxelles-National et dans la station de métro Maelbeek à Bruxelles, y compris l’évolution et la gestion de la lutte contre le radicalisme et la menace terroriste,” Chambre des Représentants de Belgique, Troisieme Rapport Intermédiaire, sur le volet “Architecture de la sécurite” (15 June 2017), 476–7.

63 Rotella, “How Europe Left Itself Open” [see note 49].

64 Ibid.; Eric Van Der Sypt, Belgium Counterterrorism Prosecutor, in Rotella, Edge, and Pollack, “Terror in Europe” [see note 52].

65 Lasoen, “Plan B(ruxellles),” 1297 [see note 9].

66 Ibid.; Rotella, Edge, and Pollack, “Terror in Europe” [see note 52]; Chris Graham, James Rothwell and David Lawler, “Sources Say Ibrahim El Bakraoui Was on US Counterterrorism Watch List before Paris Attacks – Live,” The Telegraph, 26 March 2016. https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/europe/belgium/12204399/Brussels-terror-attacks-metro-airport-suspects-live.html (accessed 12 August 2019).

67 Rotella, Edge, and Pollack, “Terror in Europe” [see note 52].

68 Ibid.

69 Interview n.38, Rotella, “How Europe Left Itself Open” [see note 49].

70 Ibid.

71 Ibid.

72 Cruickshank, “The Inside Story of the Paris” [see note 56]; Andrew Higgins, Kimiko de Freytas-Tamura, and Katrin Bennhold, “In Suspects’ Brussels Neighborhood, a History of Petty Crimes and Missed Chances,” The New York Times, 16 November 2015, https://www.nytimes.com/2015/11/17/world/europe/in-suspects-brussels-neighborhood-a-history-of-petty-crimes-and-missed-chances.html (accessed 25 July 2019).

73 Soren Seelow, “Sid Ahmed Ghlam, entre les mailles du filet,” Le Monde, 30 July 2015. https://www.lemonde.fr/police-justice/article/2015/08/03/la-genese-du-projet-racontee-par-sid-ahmed-ghlam_4709536_1653578.html (accessed 10 July 2019); Kim Willsher, “French Student Charged with Murder and Links to a Terrorist Organization,” The Guardian, 24 April 2015. https://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/apr/24/french-police-charge-student-links-terrorist-organisation (accessed 19 August 2019).

74 Ibid.; Cruickshank, “The Inside Story of the Paris” [see note 56].

75 Philippe Sotto, “Lawyer: France Train Attack Was Ordered by Paris IS Attacker,” The Associated Press, 15 December 2015. https://apnews.com/article/a62a8dd9358b4fd793b217b0af3b65a3 (accessed 17 July 2020).

76 Belgian Standing Intelligence Agencies Review Committee, “Activity Report 2016. Review Investigations, Control of Special Intelligence Methods and Recommendations” (Cambridge et al.: Intersentia, 2018), 22.

77 Rotella, Edge, and Pollack, “Terror in Europe” [see note 52]; Lasoen, “Plan B(ruxellles),” 1298 [see note 9]; Marianne Barriaux, “French Investigators Question Train Gunman,” Rappler, Agence France-Presse, 25 August 2015, https://www.rappler.com/world/103663-france-investigators-question-train-gunman/ (accessed 14 August 2018).

78 Ibid.

79 Investigating the incident, Belgian Comité R found no wrongdoing in information exchange, noting that a 3–4-day delay was standard for such requests. Belgian Standing Intelligence Agencies Review Committee, “Activity Report 2016,” 22–4 [see note 76].

80 Rotella, Edge, and Pollack, “Terror in Europe” [see note 52].

81 Ibid.; Cruickshank, “The Inside Story of the Paris” [see note 56].

82 Flagged by Interpol as stolen and possibly used by terrorist suspects, however Greece being completely overwhelmed was not regularly checking databases, while for some of those a Wi-Fi connection is necessary and it was not always available (Rotella, Edge, and Pollack, “Terror in Europe” [see note 52]).

83 Rotella, Edge, and Pollack, “Terror in Europe” [see note 52]; Cruickshank, “The Inside Story of the Paris” [see note 56].

84 Cruickshank, “The Inside Story of the Paris” [see note 56].

85 Ibid.; Jenne Jan Holtland, “Netwerk rond Abdeslam kent nog veel losse eindjes,“ De Volkskrant, 22 March 2016, https://www.volkskrant.nl/nieuws-achtergrond/netwerk-rond-abdeslam-kent-nog-veel-losse-eindjes∼b8b6cd78/ (accessed 17 July 2019).

86 Rotella, Edge, and Pollack, “Terror in Europe” [see note 52], Rotella, “How Europe Left Itself Open” [see note 49].

87 Rotella, “How Europe Left Itself Open” [see note 49].

88 The BBC, “Paris and Brussels Bombers’ Links Uncovered,” The British Broadcasting Corporation, 9 April 2016-b, https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-35879401 (accessed 6 May 2018); Holtland, “Netwerk rond Abdeslam" [see note 85]; Cruickshank, “The Inside Story of the Paris” [see note 56].

89 Ibid.

90 Ibid.

91 Ibid.; Andrew Higgins and Kimiko de Freytas-Tamura, “In Brussels Bombing Plot, a Trail of Dots Not Connected,” The New York Times, 26 March 2016, https://www.nytimes.com/2016/03/27/world/europe/in-brussels-bombing-plot-a-trail-of-dots-not-connected.html (accessed 28 July 2019).

92 Ibid.

93 Higgins, de Freytas-Tamura, and Bennhold, “In Suspects’ Brussels Neighborhood” [see note 72]; Rotella, Edge, and Pollack, “Terror in Europe” [see note 52]; Cruickshank, “The Inside Story of the Paris” [see note 56].

94 Cruickshank, “The Inside Story of the Paris” [see note 56]; Rotella, Edge, and Pollack, “Terror in Europe” [see note 52]; BBC, “Paris and Brussels” [see note 88]; Higgins and de Freytas-Tamura, “In Brussels Bombing Plot” [see note 91]; Belgian Standing Intelligence Agencies Review Committee, “Activity Report 2016,” 44 [see note 76]; Lasoen, “Plan B(ruxellles)” [see note 9].

95 Cruickshank, “The Inside Story of the Paris” [see note 56].

96 France 24, “Salah Abdeslam Sentenced to Life in Prison as Paris Attack Trial Winds Up,” France 24, 29 June 2022, https://www.france24.com/en/france/20220629-live-french-court-to-issue-verdicts-in-landmark-2015-paris-attacks-trial (accessed 22 July 2022).

97 Cruickshank, “The Inside Story of the Paris” [see note 56].

98 Ibid.

99 Ibid.

100 Ibid.

101 Ibid.

102 Ibid

103 Ibid.

104 Ibid.

105 Rotella, Edge, and Pollack, “Terror in Europe” [see note 52]; Cruickshank, “The Inside Story of the Paris” [see note 56]; Le Parisien “Attentats de Paris,” Le Parisien, 19 February 2015, https://atelier.leparisien.fr/galaxie-djihadiste/profil/13-novembre-2015–-les-attentats-de-paris/E15 (accessed 12 August 2018); Soren Seelow, “Mohamed Belkaid, mort en protégeant la fuite d’Abdeslam, et logistician présumé des attentats de Paris,” Le Monde, 19 March 2016, https://www.lemonde.fr/attaques-a-paris/article/2016/03/19/mohamed-belkaid-mort-en-protegeant-la-fuite-d-abdeslam-et-logisticien-des-attentats-de-paris_4886074_4809495.html (accessed 13 October 2018).

106 Cruickshank, “The Inside Story of the Paris” [see note 56].

107 Ibid.; Rotella, Edge, and Pollack, “Terror in Europe” [see note 52]; Sebastian Rotella, “U.S. Identifies Key Player in ISIS Attacks on Europe,” ProPublica, 19 October 2016-b, https://www.propublica.org/article/us-identifies-key-player-in-isis-attacks-on-europe (accessed 9 November 2018); Van Ostaeyen, “Belgian Radical Networks” [see note 9].

108 Rotella, Edge, and Pollack, “Terror in Europe” [see note 52]; also Interview n.38.

109 Belgian Standing Intelligence Agencies Review Committee, “Activity Report 2016,” 28 [see note 76].

110 Ibid.

111 Rotella, Edge, and Pollack, “Terror in Europe” [see note 52].

112 Cruickshank, “The Inside Story of the Paris” [see note 56], Higgins, de Freytas-Tamura, and Bennhold, “In Suspects’ Brussels Neighborhood” [see note 72].

113 Cruickshank, “The Inside Story of the Paris” [see note 56].

114 Euractiv, “US Services Knew Four of the Paris Attackers,” Euractiv, 20 November 2015, https://www.euractiv.com/section/justice-home-affairs/news/us-services-knew-four-of-the-paris-attackers/ (accessed 23 May 2018).

115 Eric Van der Sypt, Counterterrorism Prosecutor and Alain Grignard, Senior Counterterror Official, Federal Police, Belgium, in Rotella, Edge, and Pollack, “Terror in Europe” [see note 52].

116 Ibid.

117 Lasoen, “Plan B(ruxellles),” 1299 [see note 9].

118 Ibid., substantiated further by Interview n.11, 12, etc.

119 Ibid.

120 Rotella, Edge, and Pollack, “Terror in Europe” [see note 52].

121 Cruickshank, “The Inside Story of the Paris” [see note 56].

122 Ibid.

123 Belgian Standing Intelligence Agencies Review Committee, “Activity Report 2016,” 46 [see note 76]; Rotella, Edge, and Pollack, “Terror in Europe” [see note 52].

124 Interview n.12; Fox News Network, “Paris Attack Fugitive Salah Abdeslam May Have Eluded Belgian Police, Prosecutor’s Office Says,” Fox News, 17 December 2015, https://www.foxnews.com/world/paris-attack-fugitive-salah-abdeslam-may-have-eluded-belgian-police-prosecutors-office-says (accessed 3 August 2019).

125 Heath, Sheftalovich, and Spillane, “Belgium’s 12 Worst Terror Misses” [see note 23]; Alastair Macdonald, “The Race Against Time That Belgium Lost,” Reuters, 27 March 2016, https://www.reuters.com/article/us-belgium-blast-time-insight-idUSKCN0WT0L0 (accessed 12 November 2018).

126 Macdonald, “The Race Against Time” [see note 125]; Natasha Bertrand, “Police in Belgian Town Say They ‘Forgot’ to Pass Along Information About Paris Attacker’s Whereabouts,” Business Insider, 25 March 2016, https://www.businessinsider.com/salah-abdeslam-paris-belgian-police-2016-3?r=DE&IR=T (accessed 15 August 2019); Laurens Cerulus, “Local Police Had Abdeslam Information for 3 Months, Didn’t Tell Brussels,” Politico, 25 March 2016, https://www.politico.eu/article/local-police-had-abdeslam-information-for-3-months-didnt-tell-brussels/ (accessed 6 September 2018); Higgins and de Freytas-Tamura, “In Brussels Bombing Plot” [see note 91].

127 Interview n.33, 38; Cruickshank, “The Inside Story of the Paris” [see note 56].

128 Rotella, Edge, and Pollack, “Terror in Europe” [see note 52]; Interview n.33, 38; Seelow, “Mohamed Belkaid” [see note 105].

129 Rotella, Edge, and Pollack, “Terror in Europe” [see note 52].

130 Belgian Standing Intelligence Agencies Review Committee, “Activity Report 2016,” 46 [see note 76].

131 Cruickshank, “The Inside Story of the Paris” [see note 56].

132 Ibid.

133 Ibid.

134 Belgian Standing Intelligence Agencies Review Committee, “Activity Report 2016,” 46–7 [see note 76].

135 Ibid., 54.

136 Ibid.

137 Ibid.

138 Ibid.

139 Lasoen, “Plan B(ruxellles),” 1299 [see note 9].

140 Ibid.

141 Cruickshank, “The Inside Story of the Paris” [see note 56]; Amandine Schmitt, “Qui est Abid Aberkan, le logeur de Salah Abdeslam à Molenbeek?,” L’Obs, 21 March 2016, https://www.nouvelobs.com/attentats-terroristes-a-paris/20160321.OBS6823/qui-est-abid-aberkan-le-logeur-de-salah-abdeslam-a-molenbeek.html (accessed 16 April 2018).

142 Ibid.

143 Maïa De La Baume and Giulia Paravicini, “Belgium Questioned Salah Abdeslam for Only One Hour before Attacks,” Politico, 24 March 2016, https://www.politico.eu/article/belgium-terror-attacks-questioned-salah-abdeslam-for-only-one-hour-before-terror-attacks/ (accessed 8 September 2018). Fingers were later pointed between the two countries’ law enforcement where the Belgian side claimed that unlike the raid that killed Abaaoud they had gotten their suspect alive, and claimed that if the Paris prosecutor Francois Mollins had not discussed the interrogation with the press, the Brussels attack might not have been expedited (ibid.).

144 Graham, Rothwell, and Lawler, “Sources Say Ibrahim El Bakraoui” [see note 66].

145 Ibid.

146 De La Baume and Paravicini, “Belgium Questioned Salah Abdeslam” [see note 143]

147 Ibid.

148 Graham, Rothwell, and Lawler, “Sources Say Ibrahim El Bakraoui” [see note 66].

149 The BBC, “Paris Attacks: Suspect Salah Abdeslam ‘Planned Further Attacks’,” The British Broadcasting Corporation, 20 March 2016-c, https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-35857388 (accessed 13 August 2019); Euractiv, “Belgium Says Captured Paris Suspect May Have Planned More Attacks,” Euractiv, 21 March 2016, https://www.euractiv.com/section/global-europe/news/belgium-says-captured-paris-suspect-may-have-planned-more-attacks/ (accessed 24 May 2018); Walt, “Belgium’s Security Failures Made” [see note 24].

150 The BBC, “Brussels Raid over Paris Attacks: Dead Gunman Was Algerian National,” The British Broadcasting Corporation, 16 March 2016-d, https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-35817793 (accessed 12 August 2019).

151 E.g. Rotella, Edge, and Pollack, “Terror in Europe” [see note 52]; Cruickshank, “The Inside Story of the Paris” [see note 56].

152 Ibid.; Cruickshank, “The Inside Story of the Paris” [see note 56]; Elise Vincent, “13 novembre: l’enquête dévoile un projet terroriste de grande ampleur,” Le Monde, 5 October 2016, https://www.lemonde.fr/attaques-a-paris/article/2016/10/05/13-novembre-l-enquete-devoile-un-projet-terroriste-de-grande-ampleur_5008251_4809495.html?_ga=2.67098862.1958659243.1578942696-1396486344.1575253617 (accessed 10 July 2019).

153 Rotella, “How Europe Left Itself Open” [see note 49].

154 Belgian Standing Intelligence Agencies Review Committee, “Activity Report 2016,” 46–7 [see note 76].

155 Higgins, de Freytas-Tamura, and Bennhold, “In Suspects’ Brussels Neighborhood” [see note 72]; Heath, Sheftalovich, and Spillane, “Belgium’s 12 Worst Terror Misses” [see note 23].

156 Higgins, and de Freytas-Tamura, “In Brussels Bombing Plot” [see note 91].

157 Ibid.

158 Nick Miller, “Brussels Attacks: Man in the White Coat ‘Blown Away’ by Other Bombs,” The Sydney Morning Herald, 26 March 2016, https://www.smh.com.au/world/brussels-attacks-man-in-the-white-coat-blown-away-by-other-bombs-20160326-gnrihw.html (accessed 9 July 2019).

159 Belgian Parliamentary Inquiry, “Enquête Parliamentaire chargée” [see note 62]; BBC, “Paris and Brussels” [see note 88]; Kim Hjelmgaard, Delphine Reuter, and John Bacon, “Islamic State Claims Responsibility for Brussels Attack That Killed Dozens,” Gannett/USA TODAY Network, 22 March 2016, https://eu.usatoday.com/story/news/world/2016/03/22/explosions-rock-brussels-airport/82107254/ (accessed 28 August 2020).

160 Belgian Standing Intelligence Agencies Review Committee, “Activity Report 2016,” 44 [see note 76]; Heath, Sheftalovich, and Spillane, “Belgium’s 12 Worst Terror Misses” [see note 23].

161 BBC, “Paris and Brussels” [see note 88].

162 Belgian Standing Intelligence Agencies Review Committee, “Activity Report 2016,” 44 [see note 76].

163 Joakim Palmkvist and Olle Lönnaeus, “Osama Krayems väg från Rosengård till kalifatet,” Sydsvenskan, 16 April 2016, https://www.sydsvenskan.se/2016-04-15/osama-krayems-vag-fran-rosengard-till-kalifatet (accessed 12 July 2019).

164 Ibid.; Belgian Standing Intelligence Agencies Review Committee, “Activity Report 2016,” 44 [see note 76].

165 Belgian Standing Intelligence Agencies Review Committee, “Activity Report 2016,” 44 [see note 76].

166 Ibid.

167 Ibid., 46.

168 Graham, Rothwell, and Lawler, “Sources Say Ibrahim El Bakraoui” [see note 67].

169 Ibid.; Higgins, and de Freytas-Tamura, “In Brussels Bombing Plot” [see note 99].

170 Graham, Rothwell, and Lawler, “Sources Say Ibrahim El Bakraoui” [see note 67].

171 Ibid.

172 Jasmijn M. Remmers, “Temporal Dynamics in Covert Networks: A Case Study of the Structure behind the Paris and Brussels Attacks,” Terrorism and Political Violence (2019): 1–24. Doi: 10.1080/09546553.2019.1671373.

173 Ibid., 18.

174 Ibid., 12–6.

175 Ibid., 14.

176 Ibid., 1–24.

177 e.g. Tim King, “Belgium Is a Failed State,” Politico, 2015, https://www.politico.eu/article/belgium-failed-state-security-services-molenbeek-terrorism/ (accessed 17 July 2019); Martin Kuebler, “Rebranding ‘Failed State’ Belgium,” Deutsche Welle, 23 May 2016, https://www.dw.com/en/failed-state-belgium-aims-to-rebrand-two-months-after-attacks/a-19278697 (accessed 24 May 2018).

178 Belgian Parliamentary Inquiry, “Enquête Parliamentaire chargée,” 488–90 [see note 62].

179 Ibid.

180 Ibid.

181 Valentina Pop and Mark Maremont, “Secret Report Shows Just How Badly Belgium Mishandled Hunt for ISIS Operatives,” The Wall Street Journal, 6 January 2017, https://www.wsj.com/articles/secret-report-shows-just-how-badly-belgium-mishandled-hunt-for-isis-operatives-1483630994 (accessed 2 August 2019).

182 Ibid.; Interview n.33; De Morgen, “Politie vindt ‘verloren’ gsm van Brahim Abdeslam terug onder stapel dossiers,“ De Morgen, 15 November 2016, https://www.demorgen.be/nieuws/politie-vindt-verloren-gsm-van-brahim-abdeslam-terug-onder-stapel-dossiers∼bd1f2a7e/ (accessed 17 September 2018).

183 Ibid.

184 Ibid.

185 Ibid.

186 Ibid.

187 Pop and Maremont, “Secret Report Shows Just” [see note 181].

188 Ibid.

189 Ibid. In the case of Brahim’s travel no report was filed by border police.

190 Pop and Maremont, “Secret Report Shows Just” [see note 181].

191 Ibid.

192 Ibid.

193 Heath, Sheftalovich, and Spillane, “Belgium’s 12 Worst Terror Misses” [see note 23].

194 Lasoen, “Plan B(ruxellles),” 1297–301 [see note 9].

195 Ibid.; Doaa’ Elnakhala, “CT Overview: Belgium,” Counter-terrorism Ethics, 2018, http://counterterrorismethics.com/the-belgian-counter-terrorism-landscape/# (accessed 18 March 2020).

196 Ibid.

197 Ibid.

198 Lasoen, “Plan B(ruxellles),” 1300 [see note 9].

199 Frédéric Simon, “EU Anti-Terror Czar: ‘The Threat Is Coming from Inside Europe’,” Euractiv, 22 March 2017, https://www.euractiv.com/section/freedom-of-thought/interview/eu-anti-terror-czar-the-threat-is-coming-from-inside-europe/ (accessed 27 March 2018).

200 Ibid.

201 Belgian Parliamentary Inquiry, “Enquête Parliamentaire chargée,” 479 [see note 62].

202 Ibid.

203 Ibid., 482–3.

204 SIRENE are the national bureaux that assist with the implementation and technical issues arising from the introduction of SIS-II into national law enforcement, acting as a de facto central authority and helpdesk for frontline officers.

205 Ibid.

206 Ibid., 479.

207 Interview n.34, 35, 36.

208 Ibid.

209 Belgian Parliamentary Inquiry, “Enquête Parliamentaire chargée,” 481 [see note 62].

210 General Secretariat of the Council of the EU, “Conclusions of the Council of the EU and of the Member States meeting within the Council on Counter-Terrorism,” 14406/15 COR 1, (2015), https://data.consilium.europa.eu/doc/document/ST-14406-2015-COR-1/en/pdf (accessed 6 April 2019).

211 Christine Andreeva, “The Evolution of Information-Sharing in EU Counter-Terrorism post-2015: A Paradigm Shift?,” Global Affairs 7, no. 5 (2021): 751–76, DOI: 10.1080/23340460.2021.1983728.

212 Interview n.19, 23, 27.

213 Van Ostaeyen, “Belgian Radical Networks,” 7 [see note 9], Interview n.19, 23.

214 Interview n.34, 35, 36, 11, 27.

215 Interview n.11.

216 Interview n.27.

217 Interview n.34; Wim Wensink et al., “The European Union’s Policies on Counter-Terrorism – Relevance, Coherence and Effectiveness,” European Parliament (2017), 71. DOI: 10.2861/955368, https://www.europarl.europa.eu/RegData/etudes/STUD/2017/583124/IPOL_STU(2017)583124_EN.pdf (accessed 25 July 2021).

218 Ibid.

219 Interview n.23, 33, 35, 38, 31, 20, 24, 26; also Wensink et al., “The European Union’s Policies on Counter-Terrorism,” 36, 76 [see note 217]; Christiane Höhn and Gilles de Kerchove, “The Role of European Intelligence in Countering Terrorism,” in Intelligence Law and Policy in Europe, ed. Jan-Hendrik Dietrich and Satish Sule (Oxford: Hart Publishing, 2019), 82–120; Wouter van Ballegooij and Piotr Bakowski, “The Fight against Terrorism. Cost of Non-Europe Report,” European Parliamentary Research Service (Brussels: European Added Value Unit, May 2008), 26, 30, https://www.europarl.europa.eu/RegData/etudes/STUD/2018/621817/EPRS_STU(2018)621817_EN.pdf (accessed 15 July 2021).

220 Interview n.34, 35, 36.

221 Interview n.19.

222 Interview n.2, 14, 15, 34, 35; Höhn and de Kerchove, “The Role of European Intelligence” [see note 219].

223 Interview n.24, 14; Höhn and de Kerchove, “The Role of European Intelligence” [see note 219].

224 Interview n.1, 10, 14, 23, 37, 32.

225 Interview n.37.

226 Interview n.23.

227 Interview n.14; Fägersten, “Bureaucratic Resistance” [see note 1].

228 Interview n.9.

229 Interview n.19, 34.

230 Lasoen, “Plan B(ruxellles),” 13 [see note 9].

231 Interviews n.12, 19, 34, 35, 36, 38.

Additional information

Funding

This research was supported by Metropolitan University Prague’s research project no.93-04 “Center for Security Studies” (2022) based on a grant from the Institutional Fund for the Long-term Strategic Development of Research Organizations, as well as by Dublin City University’s School of Law and Government. Some parts of this research will be published in the forthcoming book: Christine Andreeva, The Evolution of Information-sharing in EU Counter-terrorism: A post-2015 Paradigm Shift? (Edward Elgar Publishing, 2023), ISBN: 978 1 80392 829 6.