Lone Leaders of Leaderless Resistors: A Theory of Informal Leadership in Contemporary Terrorism and Political Violence

Abstract

Previous studies found that informal leadership emerges in leaderless resistance movements. However, its boundaries – i.e. the conditions in which leaders can be successful – remain obscure. This paper develops a theoretical framework to then apply it to the Informal Anarchist Federation. The findings suggest that leaders are more likely to succeed when conforming to the movement’s core values. Moreover, informal leadership is context-dependent, temporary, and spontaneous, but also ubiquitous since any militant can be a leader and followers play a crucial role in co-creating the enactment of leadership. The paper argues that understanding the leadership’s boundaries is crucial for counterterrorism purposes.

Disclosure Statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author.

Notes

1 Phillip W. Gray, “Leaderless Resistance, Networked Organization, and Ideological Hegemony,” Terrorism and Political Violence 25, no. 5 (November 2013): 655–71, https://doi.org/10.1080/09546553.2012.674077; Simon Western, “Autonomist Leadership in Leaderless Movements: Anarchists Leading the Way,” Ephemera: Theory & Politics in Organization 14, no. 4 (2014): 673–98.

2 Bruce Hoffman, Inside Terrorism (New York, NY: Cambridge University Press, 2006), 271; Colin P. Clarke, “Trends in Terrorism: What’s on the Horizon in 2023?” (Foreign Policy Research Institute, 3 January 2023), https://www.fpri.org/article/2023/01/trends-in-terrorism-whats-on-the-horizon-in-2023/.

3 Paul Joosse, “Leaderless Resistance and Ideological Inclusion: The Case of the Earth Liberation Front,” Terrorism and Political Violence 19, no. 3 (4 July 2007): 351, https://doi.org/10.1080/09546550701424042.

4 Jeffrey Kaplan, “‘Leaderless Resistance,’” Terrorism and Political Violence 9, no. 3 (September 1997): 80, https://doi.org/10.1080/09546559708427417.

5 Louis Beam, “Leaderless Resistance,” The Seditionist 12 (1992), http://www.louisbeam.com/leaderless.htm; Joosse, “Leaderless Resistance and Ideological Inclusion”; Kaplan, “‘Leaderless Resistance.’”

6 Paul Joosse, “Leaderless Resistance and the Loneliness of Lone Wolves: Exploring the Rhetorical Dynamics of Lone Actor Violence,” Terrorism and Political Violence 29, no. 1 (2 January 2017): 52–53, https://doi.org/10.1080/09546553.2014.987866.

7 Beam, “Leaderless Resistance.”

8 Kaplan, “‘Leaderless Resistance,’” 80.

9 Jean-Marc Flükiger, “The Radical Animal Liberation Movement: Some Reflections on Its Future,” Journal for the Study of Radicalism 2, no. 2 (2008): 112–13, https://doi.org/10.1353/jsr.0.0000; Kristy Campion, “‘Unstructured Terrorism’? Assessing Left Wing Extremism in Australia,” Critical Studies on Terrorism 13, no. 4 (1 October 2020): 545–67, https://doi.org/10.1080/17539153.2020.1810992.

10 Jeff Ferrell, “An Anarchist Criminology for Uncertain Times,” Journal of Criminology 54, no. 1 (March 2021): 97, https://doi.org/10.1177/00048658211007185.

11 Matthew M. Sweeney, “Leaderless Resistance and the Truly Leaderless: A Case Study Test of the Literature-Based Findings,” Studies in Conflict & Terrorism 42, no. 7 (3 July 2019): 626–27, https://doi.org/10.1080/1057610X.2017.1407480.

12 Campion, “‘Unstructured Terrorism’?,” 559; Stefan H. Leader and Peter Probst, “The Earth Liberation Front and Environmental Terrorism,” Terrorism and Political Violence 15, no. 4 (2003): 37–58; Jacob Aasland Ravndal, “From Bombs to Books, and Back Again? Mapping Strategies of Right-Wing Revolutionary Resistance,” Studies in Conflict & Terrorism, 5 April 2021, 1–29, https://doi.org/10.1080/1057610X.2021.1907897; Mattias Gardell, “Crusader Dreams: Oslo 22/7, Islamophobia, and the Quest for a Monocultural Europe,” Terrorism and Political Violence 26, no. 1 (January 2014): 129–55, https://doi.org/10.1080/09546553.2014.849930; Andreas Önnerfors, “Between Breivik and PEGIDA: The Absence of Ideologues and Leaders on the Contemporary European Far Right,” Patterns of Prejudice 51, no. 2 (15 March 2017): 159–75, https://doi.org/10.1080/0031322X.2017.1302642; Zachary Kallenborn and Philipp C. Bleek, “Avatars of the Earth: Radical Environmentalism and Chemical, Biological, Radiological, and Nuclear (CBRN) Weapons,” Studies in Conflict & Terrorism, 3 May 2018, 1–31, https://doi.org/10.1080/1057610X.2018.1471972.

13 Richard English, “History and the Study of Terrorism,” in The Cambridge History of Terrorism, ed. Richard English, 1st ed. (Cambridge University Press, 2021), 3–28, https://doi.org/10.1017/9781108556248.001.

14 Bart Schuurman, “Topics in Terrorism Research: Reviewing Trends and Gaps, 2007-2016,” Critical Studies on Terrorism 12, no. 3 (3 July 2019): 463–80, https://doi.org/10.1080/17539153.2019.1579777.

15 Simson Garfinkel, “Leaderless Resistance Today,” First Monday 8, no. 3 (2003).

16 Garfinkel.

17 Joosse, “Leaderless Resistance and Ideological Inclusion,” 352.

18 Sweeney, “Leaderless Resistance,” 626.

19 Sweeney, 629.

20 Bart Schuurman et al., “End of the Lone Wolf: The Typology That Should Not Have Been,” Studies in Conflict & Terrorism 42, no. 8 (3 August 2019): 771–78, https://doi.org/10.1080/1057610X.2017.1419554.

21 Sean Fleming, “The Unabomber and the Origins of Anti-Tech Radicalism,” Journal of Political Ideologies 27, no. 2 (2022): 218, https://doi.org/10.1080/13569317.2021.1921940; Schuurman et al., “End of the Lone Wolf,” 772.

22 Hai Liang and Francis L.F. Lee, “Opinion Leadership in a Leaderless Movement: Discussion of the Anti-Extradition Bill Movement in the ‘LIHKG’ Web Forum,” Social Movement Studies, 16 October 2021, 1–19, https://doi.org/10.1080/14742837.2021.1989294.

23 Bufe 1988, cited in Western, “Autonomist Leadership,” 679.

24 Western, “Autonomist Leadership,” 677; Gray, “Leaderless Resistance.”

25 Graham Macklin and Tore Bjørgo, “Breivik’s Long Shadow? The Impact of the 22 July 2011 Attacks on the Modus Operandi of Extreme-Right Lone Actor Terrorists,” Perspectives on Terrorism 15, no. 3 (2021): 14–36; See also Jacob Ware and Colin P. Clarke, “How Far-Right Terrorists Choose Their Enemies,” Issue Brief (The Soufan Center, December 2022), https://thesoufancenter.org/wp-content/uploads/2022/12/TSC-Issue-Brief-How-Far-Right-Terrorists-Choose-Their-Enemies-Dec-2022.pdf.

26 Joshua Farrel-Molloy and Graham Macklin, “Ted Kaczynski, Anti-Technology Radicalism and Eco-Fascism,” Perspectives (The International Centre for Counter-Terrorism, 15 June 2022), https://icct.nl/publication/ted-kaczynski-anti-technology-radicalism-and-eco-fascism/; Brian Hughes, Dave Jones, and Amarnath Amarasingam, “Ecofascism: An Examination of the Far-Right/Ecology Nexus in the Online Space,” Terrorism and Political Violence, 14 June 2022, 1–27, https://doi.org/10.1080/09546553.2022.2069932; Graham Macklin, “The Extreme Right, Climate Change and Terrorism,” Terrorism and Political Violence 34, no. 5 (4 July 2022): 979–96, https://doi.org/10.1080/09546553.2022.2069928; Imogen Richards, Callum Jones, and Gearóid Brinn, “Eco-Fascism Online: Conceptualizing Far-Right Actors’ Response to Climate Change on Stormfront,” Studies in Conflict & Terrorism, 18 December 2022, 1–27, https://doi.org/10.1080/1057610X.2022.2156036.

27 Fleming, “The Unabomber”; Mauro Lubrano, “Stop the Machines: How Emerging Technologies Are Fomenting the War on Civilization,” Terrorism and Political Violence 35, no. 2 (17 February 2023): 331, https://doi.org/10.1080/09546553.2021.1919097.

28 Mauro Lubrano, “Navigating Terrorist Innovation: A Proposal for a Conceptual Framework on How Terrorists Innovate,” Terrorism and Political Violence 35, no. 2 (2023): 249, https://doi.org/10.1080/09546553.2021.1903440.

29 Gray, “Leaderless Resistance,” 658.

30 Gray, 666.

31 Gray, 663.

32 Gray, 663.

33 Western, “Autonomist Leadership,” 681.

34 Western, 682.

35 Michael Freeman, “A Theory of Terrorist Leadership (and Its Consequences for Leadership Targeting),” Terrorism and Political Violence 26, no. 4 (September 2014): 667–70, https://doi.org/10.1080/09546553.2012.751912.

36 Gerry Adams, Cage Eleven (Dingle: Brandon, 2012); Patrick Bishop and Eamon Mallie, The Provisional IRA (London: Corgi Books, 1988), 346.

37 Senato della Repubblica - Camera dei Deputati, “Commissione Parlamentare d’inchiesta Sulla Strage Di Via Fani, Sul Sequestro e l’assassinio Di Aldo Moro e Sul Terrorismo in Italia,” VIII Leg., Doc. XXII, No.5, Vol. 10, 1986, 594, http://www.senato.it/leg/08/BGT/Schede/docnonleg/30470.htm.

38 See, e.g., Sweeney, “Leaderless Resistance”; Kaplan, “‘Leaderless Resistance.’”

39 FAI, “Lettera Aperta al Movimento Anarchico Ed Anti-Autoritario [Open Letter to the Anarchistand Anti-Authoritarian Movement],” 21 December 2003, http://www.sebbenchesiamodonne.it/rivendicazione-azione-contro-prodi-21-dicembre-2003/.

40 Ministero degli Interni, “Relazione al Parlamento Sull’Attività Delle Forze Di Polizia, Sullo Stato Dell’ordine e Della Sicurezza Publlica e Sulla Criminalità Organizata.” (Rome: Italian Ministry of the Interior, 2014), https://www.interno.gov.it/sites/default/files/relazione_al_parlamento_2013.pdf.

41 Francesco Marone, “The Rise of Insurrectionary Anarchist Terrorism in Italy,” Dynamics of Asymmetric Conflict 8, no. 3 (2 September 2015): 194–214, https://doi.org/10.1080/17467586.2015.1038288.

42 Bob Black, “My Anarchism Problem,” 1994, https://theanarchistlibrary.org/library/bob-black-my-anarchism-problem.

43 Leonard Williams, “Anarchism Revived,” New Political Science 29, no. 3 (September 2007): 299, https://doi.org/10.1080/07393140701510160.

44 Randy Borum and Chuck Tilby, “Anarchist Direct Actions: A Challenge for Law Enforcement,” Studies in Conflict & Terrorism 28, no. 3 (May 2005): 201–2, https://doi.org/10.1080/10576100590928106.

45 Williams, “Anarchism Revived,” 300.

46 Uri Gordon, “Anarchism Reloaded,” Journal of Political Ideologies 12, no. 1 (February 2007): 30, https://doi.org/10.1080/13569310601095598.

47 Gordon, 36.

48 Rudolf Rocker, Anarcho-Syndicalism: Theory and Practice, Sixth (Edinburgh: AK Press, 2004), 78.

49 Williams, “Anarchism Revived,” 312.

50 Anonymous, “Journey Towards the Abyss: Scattered Reflections on the Technoworld” (Hourriya, April 2018), 12.

51 Marone, “The Rise,” 205.

52 Francesco Marone, “A Profile of the Informal Anarchist Federation in Italy,” CTC Sentinel 7, no. 3 (2014): 21.

53 Anonymous, “Do or Die. Insurrectionary Anarchism: Organising for Attack!,” 2011, 3–14, https://theanarchistlibrary.org/library/do-or-die-insurrectionary-anarchy.

54 Alfredo M. Bonanno, Anarchismus Und Aufstand (Edition Irreversibel, 2014), 175-176.

55 FAI, “Letter Aperta.”

56 FAI.

57 Dipartimento delle Informazioni per la Sicurezza, “Relazione al Parlamento 2011,” Relazione Sulla Politica Dell’Informazione per La Sicurezza (Presidenza del Consiglio dei Ministri, 28 February 2012), 40, https://www.sicurezzanazionale.gov.it/sisr.nsf/category/relazione-annuale/page/2.html.

58 Dipartimento delle Informazioni per la Sicurezza, 40.

59 EUROPOL, “European Union: Terrorism Situation and Trend Report” (Luxembourg: Publications Office of the European Union, 2013), 31, https://www.europol.europa.eu/activities-services/main-reports/te-sat-2013-eu-terrorism-situation-and-trend-report.

60 Dipartimento delle Informazioni per la Sicurezza, “Relazione al Parlamento 2012,” Relazione Sulla Politica Dell’Informazione per La Sicurezza (Presidenza del Consiglio dei Ministri, 28 February 2013), 34, https://www.sicurezzanazionale.gov.it/sisr.nsf/category/relazione-annuale.html; Ministero degli Interni, “Relazione al Parlamento Sull’Attività Delle Forze Di Polizia, Sullo Stato Dell’ordine e Della Sicurezza Publlica e Sulla Criminalità Organizata.” (Rome: Italian Ministry of the Interior, 2013), 11, https://www.interno.gov.it/sites/default/files/relazione_al_parlamento_2012.pdf.

61 Dipartimento delle Informazioni per la Sicurezza, “Relazione al Parlamento 2014,” Relazione Sulla Politica Dell’Informazione per La Sicurezza (Presidenza del Consiglio dei Ministri, 6 March 2015), 44, https://www.sicurezzanazionale.gov.it/sisr.nsf/category/relazione-annuale.html.

62 Anonymous, “The Phoenix Project: Initiatives of Combative Anarchy 2013-2014” (Untorelli Press, August 2015), https://untorellipress.noblogs.org/files/2015/08/phoenix-project.pdf.

63 FAI, “Roma – Presentazione Del Progetto Editoriale Croce Nera Anarchica,” 2014, https://www.autistici.org/cna/2014/04/20/roma-presentazione-del-progetto-editoriale-croce-nera-anarchica/.

64 Dipartimento delle Informazioni per la Sicurezza, “Relazione 2014,” 69–70.

65 Dipartimento delle Informazioni per la Sicurezza, 71.

66 EUROPOL, “European Union: Terrorism Situation and Trend Report” (Luxembourg: Publications Office of the European Union, 2017), 42, https://www.europol.europa.eu/activities-services/main-reports/european-union-terrorism-situation-and-trend-report-te-sat-2020.

67 Dipartimento delle Informazioni per la Sicurezza, “Relazione al Parlamento 2016,” Relazione Sulla Politica Dell’Informazione per La Sicurezza (Presidenza del Consiglio dei Ministri, 27 February 2017), 71–72, https://www.sicurezzanazionale.gov.it/sisr.nsf/category/relazione-annuale.html.

68 325, “#11,” 2014, https://325.nostate.net/distro/.

69 325, 10.

70 Lubrano, “Stop the Machines.”

71 Ariel Koch, “Trends in Anti-Fascist and Anarchist Recruitment and Mobilization,” Journal for Deradicalization 14 (2018): 3.

72 325, “#12,” 2020, 14–17; 29, https://325.nostate.net/distro/.

73 Dipartimento delle Informazioni per la Sicurezza, “Relazione al Parlamento 2021,” Relazione Sulla Politica Dell’Informazione per La Sicurezza (Presidenza del Consiglio dei Ministri, 28 February 2022), 100, https://www.sicurezzanazionale.gov.it/sisr.nsf/category/relazione-annuale.html.

74 EUROPOL, “European Union: Terrorism Situation and Trend Report” (Luxembourg: Publications Office of the European Union, 2022), 62, https://www.europol.europa.eu/cms/sites/default/files/documents/Tesat_Report_2022_0.pdf.

75 EUROPOL, 58.

76 EUROPOL, 63–64.

77 Dipartimento delle Informazioni per la Sicurezza, “Relazione 2021,” 99.

78 Angela Giuffrida, “Italian Anarchist’s Hunger Strike Rekindles Debate over Harsh Prison Regime,” The Guardian, 3 February 2023, https://www.theguardian.com/world/2023/feb/03/italian-anarchist-alfredo-cospito-hunger-strike-rekindles-debate-harsh-prison-regime.

79 Antonia Roberta Siino, “The Article 41-Bis of the Italian Criminal Jurisdiction : Indispensable Instrument or Basis for Torture?,” Sicurezza e Scienze Sociali, no. 2 (2015): 122–34, https://doi.org/10.3280/SISS2015-002009.

80 Adriano Sofri, “La Vicenda Di Alfredo Cospito. Quando La Giustizia è Smisurata e Si Compiace Di Esserl,” Il Foglio, 21 December 2022, sec. Piccola Posta, https://www.ilfoglio.it/piccola-posta/2022/12/21/news/la-vicenda-di-alfredo-cospito-quando-la-giustizia-e-smisurata-e-si-compiace-di-esserlo-4782785/.

81 Sofri.

82 Giuffrida, “Italian”; Alessandra Arachi, “Alfredo Cospito Ricoverato in Ospedale: Oltre al Cibo, Rifiuta Anche Gli Integratori,” Il Corriere Della Sera, 11 February 2023, https://www.corriere.it/cronache/23_febbraio_11/alfredo-cospito-ospedale-f32c63e0-aa34-11ed-9a4b-673945879bc9.shtml.

83 Alessia Marani, “Anarchici, La Galassia Si Allarga: Lo Zoccolo Duro Romano e La ‘Chiamata Alle Armi,’” Il Messaggero, 30 January 2023, https://www.ilmessaggero.it/roma/centro_storico/anarchici_roma_italiani_oggi_scontri_chi_sono_trastevere-7200098.html; Redazione ANSA, “Violence, Vandalism at Anarchist Demonstration in Turin,” ANSA, 5 December 2022, https://www.ansa.it/english/news/general_news/2022/12/05/violence-vandalism-at-anarchist-demonstration-in-turin_a3737ee7-7098-4b33-96c5-2bc8a608f59b.html.

84 Carlotta Rocci, “Protesta Degli Anarchici per Cospito, a Fuoco Un Ripetitore Sulla Collina Di Torino,” La Repubblica, 28 January 2023, https://torino.repubblica.it/cronaca/2023/01/28/news/anarchici_ripetitore_collina_torino-385506346/; Redazione ANSA, “A Roma Cinque Auto in Fiamme Nel Parcheggio Della Tim, Poco Distante Le Scritte ‘No 41 Bis’. Rivendicazione Degli Anarchici,” ANSA, 31 January 2023, https://www.ansa.it/sito/notizie/cronaca/2023/01/30/a-roma-cinque-auto-in-fiamme-nel-parcheggio-della-tim-poco-distante-le-scritte-no-41-bis_f41f4459-76b1-46f0-aaca-88bfe6125f43.html.

85 Alvise Armellini, “Italy Facing Attacks by International Anarchists, Foreign Minister s,” Reuters, 31 January 2023, https://www.reuters.com/world/europe/italy-facing-attacks-by-international-anarchists-foreign-minster-says-2023-01-31/.

86 The following discussion covers events up to March 2023

87 Alfredo Cospito, A Few Words of "Freedom" Interview by CCF – Imprisoned Members Cell with Alfredo Cospito, interview by Conspiracy of Cells of Fire, July 2014, 3, https://325.nostate.net/2014/12/01/interview-by-ccf-imprisoned-members-cell-with-alfredo-cospito-greece-italy/.

88 Redazione ANSA, “Alfredo Cospito, l’anarchico al 41 Bis,” ANSA, 2 February 2023, https://www.ansa.it/sito/notizie/cronaca/2023/01/30/ansa-profilo/alfredo-cospito-lanarchico-al-41-bis_b066125f-ec9d-4a0e-a74f-35cb40eb4955.html.

89 Maria R. D’Angelo, Sentenza n. 6 del 11 luglio 2014 nel procedimento penale contro Alfredo Cospito e Nicola Gai, No. Verdict N. 6 (Corte d’Assise di Appello di Genova 11 July 2014).

90 For the 2006 attack in Fossano, see EUROPOL, “European Union: Terrorism Situation and Trend Report” (Luxembourg: Publications Office of the European Union, 2007), 33, https://www.europol.europa.eu/activities-services/main-reports/te-sat-2009-eu-terrorism-situation-trend-report.

91 Sarah Martinenghi, “‘Scripta Manent’, La Cassazione Ordina Un Nuovo Processo d’appello per Il Leader Anarchico Alfredo Cospito,” La Repubblica, 7 July 2022, sec. Cronaca, https://torino.repubblica.it/cronaca/2022/07/07/news/scripta_manent_la_cassazione_nuovo_processo_dappello_per_alfredo_cospito-356873419/.

92 Stefano Pagliarini, “Questa è La Storia Di Alfredo Cospito, Il Primo Anarchico Italiano in Carcere al 41 Bis,” Today, February 2, 2023, sec. Politica, https://www.today.it/politica/cospito-carcere-41-bis.html.

93 Redazione ANSA, “Terrorismo: Arrestati 7 Anarchici Fai,” ANSA, 7 September 2016, https://www.ansa.it/emiliaromagna/notizie/2016/09/06/terrorismo-arrestati-7-anarchici-fai_4ed452b7-f675-4ca7-a58b-8b6cb293979f.html.

94 Massimo Numa, “Sciopero Della Fame in Carcere per Gli Anarchici Dell’operazione Scripta Manent,” La Stampa, 21 October 2016, https://www.lastampa.it/torino/2016/10/21/news/sciopero-della-fame-in-carcere-per-gli-anarchici-dell-operazione-scripta-manent-1.34791926/.

95 CNA, “Aggiornamento Sullo Sciopero Della Fame Della Sezione AS2 Di Ferrara” (Croce Nera Anarchica, 19 June 2019), https://www.autistici.org/cna/2019/06/19/aggiornamento-sullo-sciopero-della-fame-dalla-sezione-as2-di-ferrara/.

96 See, e.g., Cospito, A Few Words of ”Freedom”; Alfredo Cospito, “The Autism of the Insurrectionists,” July 2018, https://theanarchistlibrary.org/library/alfredo-cospito-the-autism-of-the-insurrectionists.pdf; Alfredo Cospito, “On the ‘Proposal For a New Anarchist Manifesto,’” 19 April 2021, https://theanarchistlibrary.org/library/alfredo-cospito-on-the-proposal-for-a-new-anarchist-manifesto.pdf; Alfredo Cospito, “Ready or Not,” 25 November 2017, https://theanarchistlibrary.org/library/alfredo-cospito-ready-or-not.pdf; Alfredo Cospito, “From the Belly of the Leviathan. Declaration at the Trial (30 October 2013) for the Wounding of Ansaldo Nucleare Managing Director Roberto Adinolf,” 4 November 2013, https://theanarchistlibrary.org/library/alfredo-cospito-from-the-belly-of-the-leviathan.pdf.

97 Federico Genta, “Bomba a Due Magistrati, Allarme a Torino,” La Stampa, 16 June 2017, sec. Cronaca, https://www.lastampa.it/cronaca/2017/06/16/news/bomba-a-due-magistrati-allarme-a-torino-1.34579245/; “Ferrara, Il Diktat Dell’anarchico in Cella: ‘Colpite Il Mio Carceriere,’” Il Resto Del Carlino, 22 May 2019, sec. Cronaca, https://www.ilrestodelcarlino.it/ferrara/cronaca/anarchici-torino-1.4606691.

98 “Cospito, Ecco Tutte Le Accuse Contro l’anarchico,” Il Sole 24 Ore, 3 February 2023, sec. Giustizia, https://www.ilsole24ore.com/art/cospito-ecco-tutte-accuse-contro-anarchico-AEmgLfgC.

99 Luigi Manconi, “L’anarchico Delle Bombe Che Ora Rischia Di Morire in Cella Come Un Boss. Ma Non Ha Ucciso Nessuno,” La Repubblica, 15 November 2022, sec. Cronaca, https://www.repubblica.it/cronaca/2022/11/15/news/anarchico_carcere_morte_boss-374541566/.

100 Cospito, A Few Words of ”Freedom”.

101 Cospito, “From the Belly.”

102 Sarah Martinenghi and Carlotta Rocci, “Torino, Chiesto l’ergastolo per Cospito. Gli Anarchici in Corteo Picchiano Un Barista,” La Repubblica, 5 December 2022, https://torino.repubblica.it/cronaca/2022/12/05/news/lideologo_del_fai_alfredo_cospito_rischia_lergastolo_la_procura_generale_blinda_la_sua_detenzione-377527887/.

103 Cospito, “From the Belly.”

104 D’Angelo, Sentenza n. 6 at 13.

105 D’Angelo, at 13.

106 Cospito, “From the Belly,” 2.

107 EUROPOL, “European Union: Terrorism Situation and Trend Report” (Luxembourg: Publications Office of the European Union, 2011), 32, https://www.europol.europa.eu/activities-services/main-reports/te-sat-2011-eu-terrorism-situation-and-trend-report.

108 EUROPOL, “European Union: Terrorism Situation and Trend Report” (Luxembourg: Publications Office of the European Union, 2021), 90, https://www.europol.europa.eu/cms/sites/default/files/documents/tesat_2021_0.pdf; EUROPOL, “European Union 2022,” 58–70.

109 START (National Consortium for the Study of Terrorism and Responses to Terrorism), “Global Terrorism Database 1970 - 2020,” 2022, https://www.start.umd.edu/gtd. There exists the possibility that the GTD neglected similar episodes. However, considering the coverage of other, minor FAI-FRI’s activities, it is reasonable to assume that a spectacular, Adinolfi-like attack would have been reported.

110 Dipartimento delle Informazioni per la Sicurezza, “Relazione 2012,” 34; Ministero degli Interni, “Relazione 2013,” 11.

111 Anonymous, “Journey Towards the Abyss,” 12; FAI, “Letter Aperta.”

112 “I Servizi: «Ci Saranno Nuovi Attentati Anarchici»,” Corriere Della Sera, 23 May 2012, https://www.corriere.it/cronache/12_maggio_23/sefvizi-nuovi-attentati_9a7ec86a-a4e0-11e1-80d8-8b8b2210c662.shtml.

113 Cospito, A Few Words of ”Freedom”; Alfredo Cospito, Claudia and Stefano, and Gioacchino Somma, “Operation Scripta Manent – Statements to the Court,” November 2017, https://theanarchistlibrary.org/library/alfredo-cospito-claudia-and-stefano-gioacchino-somma-operation-scripta-manent-statements-to-the.pdf.

114 Cospito, A Few Words of ”Freedom”, 9.

115 Michael Loadenthal, The Politics of Attack: Communiqués and Insurrectionary Violence (Manchester, UK: Manchester University Press, 2018), 83; Lubrano, “Stop the Machines,” 327–29.

116 Anonymous, “Reflections on the Underlying Environment of Contemporary Informal, Insurrectional, International Anarchy (for a New Anarchic Manifesto),” April 2020, https://corrispondenzeanarchiche.files.wordpress.com/2020/11/manifesto-inglese.pdf.

117 Alfredo Cospito, “On the ‘Proposal for a New Anarchist Manifesto,’” 19 April 2021, https://theanarchistlibrary.org/library/alfredo-cospito-on-the-proposal-for-a-new-anarchist-manifesto.pdf.

118 Cospito.

119 Cospito.

120 Genta, “Bomba”; “Ferrara, Il Diktat Dell’anarchico in Cella: ‘Colpite Il Mio Carceriere.’”

121 “Cospito, Studenti Sapienza Occupano Facoltà Di Lettere per Solidarietà,” Adnkronos, 2 February 2023, sec. Cronaca, https://www.adnkronos.com/cospito-studenti-sapienza-occupano-facolta-di-lettere_4QVAa985Rk2KIuKOsYeVh9; Davide Leo, “Le Posizioni Dei Partiti Sul Caso Cospito,” Pagella Politica, 1 February 2023, sec. Giustizia, https://pagellapolitica.it/articoli/posizioni-partiti-cospito-41-bis.

122 Siino, “The Article 41-Bis.”

123 Martinenghi and Rocci, “Torino.”

124 “Cospito, La Lettera: ‘Pronto a Morire per Far Conoscere Il 41 Bis’ - Leggi,” Adnkronos, 1 March 2023, https://www.adnkronos.com/cospito-la-lettera-pronto-a-morire-per-far-conoscere-il-41-bis_WLICC7WMjfkQjtqyDTqqN.

125 “August Masetti” Brigade FAI-FRI, “Anche i Ricchi Sanguinano. Rivendicazione Del Pacco Bomba Contro Alessandro Profumo, Amministratore Delegato Di Leonardo,” 8 August 2022, https://www.rivoluzioneanarchica.it/anche-i-ricchi-sanguinano-rivendicazione-del-pacco-bomba-contro-alessandro-profumo-amministratore-delegato-di-leonardo/.

126 Richard Drake, The Revolutionary Mystique and Terrorism in Contemporary Italy (Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press, 1989), 19; 104–5.

127 Sergio Zavoli, La Notte Della Repubblica (Milano: Mondadori, 2017), 242.

128 Redazione, “Attentato Adinolfi, Procura: «La Dinamica Ci Riporta Agli Attentati Br»,” Genova Today, May 9, 2012, https://www.genovatoday.it/cronaca/gambizzato-genova-adinolfi-video.html.

129 Alfredo M. Bonanno, La Gioia Armata (Catania: Edizioni Anarchismo, 1993), 3, http://theanarchistlibrary.org/library/alfredo-m-bonanno-armed-joy.

130 Lubrano, “Stop the Machines,” 328.

131 Theodore J. Kaczynski, “Hit Where It Hurts,” 2002, https://theanarchistlibrary.org/library/ted-kaczynski-hit-where-it-hurts.pdf; Theodore J. Kaczynski, Technological Slavery: The Collected Writings of Theodore J. Kaczynski, a.k.a. “The Unabomber” (Port Townsend, WA: Feral House, 2010); Theodore J. Kaczynski, Anti-Tech Revolution: How and Why (Scottsdale, AZ: Fitch & Madison Publishers, 2015); Theodore J. Kaczynski, “Ted Kaczynski on Individualists Tending Toward Savagery (ITS),” 2017, https://theanarchistlibrary.org/library/ted-kaczynski-ted-kaczynski-on-individualists-tending-toward.

132 325, “#12,” 47.

133 325, “#11,” 16.

134 Macklin, “The Extreme Right,” 985.

135 Individualists Tending toward the Wild, “Communiques of ITS - 2011-2013,” 2013, 35, https://theanarchistlibrary.org/library/individualists-tending-toward-the-wild-communiques.

136 Theodore J. Kaczynski, “Industrial Society and Its Future,” 1995, 21–22, http://editions-hache.com/essais/pdf/kaczynski2.pdf.

137 Kaczynski, Anti-Tech Revolution, 167–68.

138 Kaczynski, “Industrial Society and Its Future,” 21; Brett A Barnett, “20 Years Later: A Look Back at the Unabomber Manifesto,” Perspectives on Terrorism 9, no. 6 (2015): 61.

139 Fleming, “The Unabomber”; Barnett, “20 Years Later,” 63.

140 Fleming, “The Unabomber,” 218.

141 Macklin, “The Extreme Right,” 984.

142 {Citation}

143 Rachel Monaghan, “Not Quite Terrorism: Animal Rights Extremism in the United Kingdom,” Studies in Conflict & Terrorism 36, no. 11 (November 2013): 939, https://doi.org/10.1080/1057610X.2013.832117.

144 Monaghan, 941.

145 Jeff Green, “The Animal Rights Movement: The Challenge for Corporate Resilience” (Portsmouth, University of Portsmouth, 2014), 63, https://pure.port.ac.uk/ws/portalfiles/portal/5759106/JLG_final_redacted.pdf.

146 Jean-Marc Flükiger, “The Radical Animal Liberation Movement,” 120.

147 Luís Cordeiro-Rodrigues, “Is the Animal Liberation Front Morally Justified in Engaging in Violent and Illegal Activism towards Animal Farms?,” Critical Studies on Terrorism 9, no. 2 (3 May 2016): 229, https://doi.org/10.1080/17539153.2016.1142797.

148 Monaghan, “Not Quite Terrorism,” 937.

149 Green, “The Animal Rights Movement,” 64.

150 Michael Loadenthal, “Appendix: Methodology—Database Construction,” Journal for the Study of Radicalism 11, no. 2 (1 July 2017): 56–64, https://doi.org/10.14321/jstudradi.11.2.0035.

151 Macklin and Bjørgo, “Breivik’s Long Shadow?,” 23.

152 Pizzini is a word used to refer to small pieces of paper that Mafia bosses use for high-level communication.

153 Richard English, Terrorism: How to Respond (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2009), 120–32.