From the Courts to the Court: History, Literature, and Litigation in the Spanish Atlantic World

Abstract

This article illuminates essential and often-neglected legal and political contexts for the production of “classical” accounts of the conquest of America written by Gonzalo Fernández de Oviedo (1478–1557), Bartolomé de las Casas (c. 1474–1566) and Antonio de Herrera y Tordesillas (1549–1626). Biographical details regarding these authors extracted from legal cases reveal pecuniary and professional interests that influenced writings about the conquest of the Americans even beyond their own works. Unbeknown to generations of scholars, these men's litigious and political careers have left their mark on official archives and even Don Quixote.

Keywords:

• Fernández de Oviedo
• Las Casas
• Herrera y Tordesillas
• law
• archives
• historiography

Acknowledgements

This paper, written to celebrate Richard L. Kagan's sixty-fifth birthday, was originally delivered at the Johns Hopkins University on 27 September 2008. I am grateful to James Amelang, Antonio Feros, Orest Ranum, and Geoffrey Parker for their suggestions upon that occasion, to A.J.R. Russell Wood for his kind presence, dearly missed, and to Tamar Herzog, Kris Lane, Fred Luciani, and two anonymous readers for subsequent advice. The revision of this article has been supported by the Proyecto de Excelencia de la Junta de Andalucía, P09-HUM 5330, ‘Nuevos Productos Atlánticos, Guerra, Ciencia, Economía y Consumo en el Antiguo Regimen,’ directed by Bartolomé Yun Casalilla.

Notes

1. I am grateful to an anonymous reviewer for suggesting this phrase.

2. In addition to the work of Adorno (2007) and Ross (2008), Córdoba Ochoa's 2009 study of the ‘Accounts of Merits and Services’ in the AGI examines how these legal proofs featured and facilitated the construction of specific narratives of conquest.

3. AGI Panamá 233, Libro 1, ff. 236–37, King Charles to Gonzalo Fernández de Oviedo, 19 June 1519. ‘Plus Ultra (Still Further)’ reflected Spanish imperial aspirations to surpass Rome. The document included a drawing of the ‘Plus Ultra’ device with the columns of Hercules, with instructions to use it to mark slaves and gold.

4. Typically, Fernández de Oviedo denounced the same procedure that benefitted him. AGI Justicia 992, No. 3, Ramo 4, f. 7r–v, Memorandum of Gonzalo Fernández de Oviedo and Íñigo López de Mondragón for the emperor, 29 April 1542.

5. For a more court-centered perspective on Fernández de Oviedo, see Carrillo Castillo (2004).

6. AGI Justicia 971, No. 2, Ramo 2, ‘Primer asiento de Oviedo con el señor secretario’; Conchillos to Fernández de Oviedo, 9 May 1514.

7. AGI Panamá 233, Libro 1, f. 76v, King Ferdinand to the treasurer and accountant of Castilla del Oro, 9 August 1513. AGI Contaduría 1451, f. 194v, ‘La data de los maravedíes y pesos de oro del thesorero Alonso de la Puente de lo hordinario de 1514,’ 25 October 1514.

8. AGI Indiferente General 856, ‘Conoscim[ient]o de la residencia de las yndias: Bartolomé Ruiz de Castañeda,’ undated.

9. According to Richard L. Kagan, the procurador ‘was the procedural expert, helping his client devise the stratagems most likely to succeed,’ preparing documents and rounding-up witnesses. He was also charged with pleading or orally presenting evidence before the judge (Kagan 1981 , 52–58).

10. AGI Patronato 25, Ramo 5, No. 6 and RAH, Colección Muñoz 9/4837 (tomo 57), ff. 323–30v, Bishop Quevedo, ‘Las cosas de que habéis de informar vos Toribio Çintado, maestreescuela, al rey,’ undated [January 1515]. Oviedo also provoked the royal accountant's resentment by attempting to manage the colony's finances. AGI Patronato 193, Ramo 3, No. 1, ‘Memorial q[ue] dexo Oviedo d[e] los gastos que se hizieron en T[ierr]a Firme desde q[ue] Pedrarias llegó,’ 30 April 1515. AGI Panamá 233, Libro 1, ff. 189v–90, King Ferdinand to Pedrarias or his lieutenant, 2 August 1515.

11. AGI Justicia 359, No. 2, Ramo 3, f. 329r–v, ‘Acuerdo para que se saquen esclavos a vender fuera de la tierra,’ 4 October 1514. AGI Justicia 1042, Proclamation signed by Bishop Juan de Quevedo, the treasurer Alonso de la Puente, and the accountant Diego Marques, 8 July 1514 and Requerimiento of Oviedo to the bishop, treasurer and accountant, 13 July 1514.

12. AGI Panamá 233, Libro 1, ff. 236–37, King Charles to Gonzalo Fernández de Oviedo, 19 June 1519.

13. According to Oviedo, one captain guilty of important abuses, Bartolomé Hurtado, escaped punishment by giving the governor and the bishop each six illegally-acquired natives, while bestowing four natives each upon the treasurer, contador, factor, and alcalde mayor (Fernández de Oviedo 1992, 3:237). Francisco González, householder and city councilor of Panamá, recorded that Hurtado, ‘brought eight Indians to the governor, the treasurer, the accountant, and the chief magistrate, and for Oviedo and the bishop, certain Indians, men, women and girls, and blankets and hammocks … .’ AGI Justicia 359, No. 2, Ramo 2, f. 70, Testimony of Francisco González, town councilor of Panamá, 21 February 1527.

14. AGI Patronato 26, Ramo 7, No. 4, Licenciado Barreda regarding Alonso de la Puente's illness, undated [1515]; Ramo 7, No. 7(c), Extract from the bishop Quevedo to King Ferdinand, 2 February 1515.

15. ‘[de] todo lo que V.A. tiene en las Indias, lo más y mejor y de más calidad y cantidad es la Tierra Firme’.

16. ‘lo mejor de lo descubierto, e todo está escondido e ocultado a Su Magestad e su Consejo e que es la causa porque no se le enbian dineros de sus rentas, pues las ay.’ AGI Patronato 193, Ramo 9, Memorial presented by Gonzalo Fernández de Oviedo against Pedrarias Dávila, undated [c. 1523].

17. The dedication to the emperor also appears in the volume Oviedo had printed at his own expense by Juan Cromberger in Seville in 1535, as he indicated in a letter to fray García de Loyasa, president of the Council of the Indies, autographed by Oviedo himself and preserved in the 1535 edition of the Primera parte de la Historia Natural y General de las Indias, Yslas e Tierra Firme del Mar Oceano in Harvard University's Houghton Library.

18. ‘e como el gobernador y el alcalde mayor vieron aquel cuento e rúbricas mías, sospecharon que yo había notado las faltas y méritos del proceso en daño dellos. E por esto sospeché que habían dado orden en mi muerte e trabajos’ (Oviedo 1992, 3:271).

19. ‘Probóles que, en seis años que Pedrarias comenzó aquella tiránica empresa, el rey había gastado en su despacho en Sevilla 52 o 54 mill ducados; y que, después que llegó al Darién, que fue el año de 1514 hasta el año de 19 había robado sobre un millón de oro —y poco creo que digo— y echado a los infiernos, sin fe y sin sacramentos, sobre más de 500 mill ánimas; y en todo aquel tiempo no habían enviado al rey un solo castellano, si no fueron tres mill castellanos que habían traído entonces a la sazón el obispo […]. Tenían esta costumbre Pedrarias y los oficiales del rey: que, de todo el oro que se traía robado de las entradas y saltos que, en las provincias adonde a saltear iban, en los indios hacían, tomaban el quinto para el rey, de lo cual pagábanse de sus salarios; y, si algo sobraba, guardábanlo para pagarse su salarios en el año venidero, porque, si faltasen los robos, no faltase para ellos. Y desta manera no enviaban un solo peso de oro, ni otra cosa que valiese algo, al rey’ (Casas 1988, 2379–80).

20. Oviedo had secured appointment as permanent town councilor of Darién alongside Diego de Corral, Alonso de la Puente, Diego Márquez, and Miguel Juan de Ribas. AGI Panamá 233, tomo 1, ff. 235–39v, King Charles to Gonzalo Fernández de Oviedo and others, 19 June 1519 (transcribed in Álvarez Rubiano 1944, 485–87). As receptor de las penas de cámara in Castilla del Oro, Oviedo also received orders to collect for the royal fisc the goods of Vasco Núñez de Balboa and the companions executed with him for treason. AGI Panama 233, Libro 1. f. 254r–v, King Charles to Gonzalo Fernández de Oviedo, 16 August 1519. As Oviedo recorded, the king ordered him, ‘to collect one hundred thousand gold pesos, which they had led His Majesty to believe was the value of the goods applied to his chamber and fisc in the sentences against the adelantado Vasco Núñez de Balboa and his companions.’ Years later, Oviedo would swear that he collected goods totaling about 450 thousand mrs—one-hundredth the wealth that he apparently had encouraged the king to expect (Fernández de Oviedo 1992, 3:261–62). AGI Panamá 234, Libro 5, f. 5r–v, Emperor Charles to the governor of Tierra Firme, 6 December 1531.

21. AGI Justicia 359, No. 2, Ramo 6, ff. 530–62v, ‘Cargos contra Oviedo por veedor.’

22. María Mexía, Diego Díaz Zatico, Alonso Núñez de Madrid and Diego de Corral successfully sued Oviedo for actions that he had taken against them as the governor's lieutenant. AGI Panamá 233, Libro 1. f. 339, King Charles to the governor of Tierra Firme, 18 July 1523; Libro 2, ff. 126v–27, King Charles to the governor of Tierra Firme, 28 April 1525; f. 181v–82, King Charles to the Licentiate Salmerón, regarding a petition of the Licentiate Diego de Corral, 20 June 1526. AGI Panamá 233, Libro 1, f. 348r–49r, ‘Real provisión citando a María Mexia, muger de Juan López Herrero, estante en Acla, Diego Díaz Zatico, vecino de la ciudad de Santa María de la Antigua del Darién y a Julian Gutiérrez, criado del lic. Corral, para que se presenten ellos o sus procuradores ante el consejo en seguimiento de la apelación que ha puesto ante el mismo, Gonzalo Fernández de Oviedo […] de ciertas sentencias que contra él y en favor de los dichos dictó el licenciado Alarconcillo,’ 20 February 1524. According to Gerbi, Oviedo bragged about being ‘very soon hated’ for doing justice in Darién, hanging a rebelious native, ‘Captain Gonzalo,’ and having a woman who falsely accused her husband ‘soundly whipped and her teeth torn out’ (220).

23. AGI Panamá 233, Libro 2 (1524–1527), ff. 22r–23r, Safe conduct for Fernández de Oviedo and his family, 6 December 1524; ff. 69v–70, King Charles, ordering the governor or judge of Tierra Firme to investigate the attempt upon Oviedo's life, 16 June 1525 (transcribed in Álvarez Rubiano 1944, 564).

24. AGI Justicia 359, No. 2, Ramo 2, ff. 88v–95v, Testimony of Gonzalo Fernández de Oviedo, 22 February 1527.

25. AGI Justicia 359, No. 2, Ramo 2, Responses to questions 41, 45, and 46, February 1527; Justicia 359, No. 2, Ramo 6, ff. 530–62v, Charges against Oviedo as overseer. According to one witness: ‘Se [h]an quexado muchas vezes del vehedor Oviedo que le an llevado derechos de cedulas e del hierro de yndios mal llevados […] e que los d[ic]hos oficiales [escribanos e vehedores] e el d[ic]ho Oviedo se aprovechavan de refundir mucho oro e que el primero honbre que refundió en estos reynos oros syn ninguna ley ni valor fue el d[ic]ho Oviedo syendo teniente del governador en el Darien e vehedor e escrivano de minas e los otros oficios de Conchillos, que fue unas hachuelas de cobre que refundió con una cadena de oro suya.’ AGI Justicia 359, No. 2, Ramo 2, f. 41v, Testimony of Lorenzo Fernández de Soria, 14 February 1527.

26. ACP 145-7, ‘Lo que se respondió a los capítulos de Oviedo’, c. 1527 (transcribed in Aram 2008, 398).

27. AGI Panamá 233, Libro 2, ff. 32 and 73v–77v, Emperor Charles to Gonzalo Fernández de Oviedo and Emperor Charles to Pedro Ruiz de Alama, 1 March and 23 June 1525. As governor of Cartagena, the chronicler claimed that the Emperor Charles had accorded him one-half of the artillery previously assigned to Pedrarias in Castilla del Oro (Fernández de Oviedo 1992, 3:67; Otte 1958, 11–12, 26; AGI Panamá 233, Libro 2, ff. 73v–77v, ‘Lo que vos, Pedro Rruyz de Alama haveys de hazer en el cargo que llevays de nuestro thesorero de la provincia y puerto de Cartajena q[u]e Gonçalo Fernandez de Oviedo v[ecin]o de la Isla Española ha de poblar a quyen tenemos proveydo de la governacion della,’ 23 June 1525).

28. AGI Justicia 12, No. 2, Ramo 3, f. 117, Testimony of Gonzalo Fernández de Oviedo in the lawsuit of Francisco de Pardavé, 27 February 1533 (transcribed in Otte 1958, 649).

29. AGI Patronato 25, Ramo 5, No. 23, Rodrigo del Castillo to the Emperor Charles, 6 May 1528 (transcribed in Álvarez Rubiano 1944, 661–65).

30. AGI Justicia 12, No. 2, Ramo 3, Diego López de Salzedo's renunciation of future accords, written by Gonzalo Fernández de Oviedo, 30 August 1528 (transcribed in Otte 1958, 640–44).

31. AGI Justicia 1043, No. 2, Authorization of Pedrarias Dávila for Gonzalo Fernández de Oviedo to represent him in Castilla del Oro, 11 April 1530.

32. AGI Justicia 1043, No. 2, Pedro de los Ríos to the examiners (visitadores) of the chiefs and natives of Panamá and Acla, 10 November 1526. On behalf of Pedrarias, Martín de Medraño protested the seizure of the natives of Otive and Otoque as well as a group of approximately forty slaves working in the mines of Acla. AGI Justicia 1043, No. 2, Requerimiento of Martín de Medraño on behalf of Pedrarias, 27 November 1526.

33. AGI Justicia 1043, No. 2, Questionnaire and witnesses presented by Gonzalo Fernández de Oviedo, 27 June 1530.

34. AGI Justicia 1043, Questionnaire and testimony presented by Gonzalo Fernández de Oviedo on behalf of Pedrarias, 18 February 1533, especially questions 5 and 6.

35. AGI Justicia 992, No. 3, Ramo 4, ff. 3–4, Yñigo López de Mondragón on behalf of Gonzalo Fernández de Oviedo, 12 April 1544.

36. AGI Justicia 992, No. 3, Ramo 4, ff. 7–9, Declaration of licentiate Villalobos, fiscal, 29 April 1542.

37. ‘y assy por ser mucha escriptura como por tener mucha talla de diversos obras no hallo impresor que se ose atrever a tomar a cargo la dicha impresión porque anticipadamente antes que se venda un libro ni gane un real se han de gastar muchos dineros … .’ OSA Haus-, Hof- und Staatsarchiv, Spanien, Diplomatische Korresponden, 3–8, ff. 257–58, Gonzalo Fernández de Oviedo to the King of the Romans, Ferdinand, requesting his intercession with the Emperor Charles, 20 November 1548.

38. AGI Indiferente General 752, ‘Lo que parece en las pretensiones del coronista Antonio de Herrera,’ 17 July 1615 (cited in Kagan 2009, 150, n.1).

39. The documentation regarding this case from AGI Patronato 170, Ramo 19 is now digitalized and available online (transcribed in CODOIN 1882, 75–321).

40. AGI Patronato 26, Ramo 5, No.7, ‘De un religioso dominico sobre la deshorden de Pedrarias.’

41. AGI Patonato 170, Ramo 19, Papeles sobre las diferencias entre Puñonrostro y Herrera (transcribed in CODOIN 1882, 75–321).

42. AGI Panamá 233, Libro 1. ff. 259–61, Royal orders to the governor and officials of Castilla del Oro, 14 September 1519 (transcribed in CODOIN 1895, Series II, 10:121–27).

43. AGI Indiferente 420, Libro 8, f. 338, Royal instructions for the governors of the Indies and the judges on Hispañola, 15 December 1521.

44. AGI Panamá 233, Libro 1. ff. 332–33, Emperor Charles to Pedrarias Dávila, 19 April 1523.

45. AGI Panamá 233, Libro 2, ff. 93v–94, Emperor Charles to Pedro de los Ríos, town councilor of Córdoba, 25 August 1525.

46. AGI Escribanía 1012A, ff. 3 and 5, The Count of Puñonrostro, 11 September 1602, and f. 7, Antonio de Herrera to the king, 16 September 1602.

47. AGI Patronato 170, Ramo 19, No. 30, Memorial of Antonio de Herrera, 10 June 1602.

48. AGI Patronato 170, Ramo 19, No. 14, Memorial of Antonio de Herrera [undated].

49. AGI Patronato 170, Ramo 19, No. 19, Declaration of Antonio de Herrera [undated].

50. AGI Patronato 170, Ramo 19, No. 19, Declaration of Antonio de Herrera [undated].

51. I am grateful to the count of Puñonrostro for calling this text to my attention.

52. AGI Indiferente 752, ‘Lo que parece en las pretensiones del coronista Antonio de Herrera,’ 17 July 1615.

53. Such ‘gifts’ entailed common practice at the court of Philip III, although, theoretically, judges could not accept them (Feros 2002, 303–33).

54. In 1615 Herrera claimed to have overcome five inspections (visitas) ‘made of him without a single charge’ (Ballesteros-Berreta 1934, xlii, liv–lvi).