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Notes
1. See V.V. Drozdov, “Stsenarii ekonomicheskikh reform v Rossii v pozdnesotsia- listicheskii i postsovetskii periody (prognozy zapadnykh analitikov v retrospektive),” in Rossiia v kontekste mirovogo ekonomicheskogo razvitiia vo vtoroi poloviny XX veka (Moscow, 2004), pp. 142–50.
2. See “Istoricheskoe soznanie: sostoianie i tendentsii razvitiia v usloviiakh perestroiki (rezul’taty sotsiologicheskogo issledovaniia),” informatsionnyi biulleten’ tsentra sotsiologicheskikh issledovanii aOn (Moscow, 1991); V.S. Polianskii, “Istoricheskaia pamiat’ v etnicheskom samosoznanii narodov,” Sotsiologicheskie issledovaniia, 1999, no. 3; Zh.T. Toshchenko, “Istoricheskaia pamiat’ i sotsiologiia,” Sotsiologicheskie issledovaniia, 1998, no. 5; and Toshchenko, “Istoricheskoe soznanie i istoricheskaia pamiat’. Analiz sovremennogo sostoianiia,” novaia i noveishaia istoriia, 2000, no. 4 [translated in this issue of Russian Studies in History, pp. 37–52—Ed.].
3. See E.S. Seniavskaia, “Voina v massovom soznanii i istoricheskoi pamiati,” Vlast’, 2001, no. 7; Seniavskaia, “Obraz voiny kak fenomen obshchestvennogo soznaniia,” in etot protivorechivyi XX vek. K 80-letiiu akademika Ran iu.a. Poliakova (Moscow, 2002); Seniavskaia, “Problema geroicheskikh simvolov v obshchestvennom soznanii Rossii: uroki istorii,” Vestnik Rossiiskogo universiteta druzhby narodov. Seriia istoriia Rossii, 2002, no. 1; Seniavskaia, “Velikaia Otechestvennaia voina v istoricheskoi pamiati i muzeinykh ekspozitsiiakh,” in Velikaia Otechestvennaia voina 1941–1945 gg. v muzeinom otrazhenii (materialy nauchno-prakticheskoi konferentsii muzeinykh rabotnikov. moskva 2003 g.) (Moscow, 2005); and V.I. Merkushin, “Velikaia Otechestvennaia voina 1941–1945 godov v istoricheskoi pamiati naroda,” Sotsiologiia vlasti, 2004, no. 6.
4. The respondents indicated that they obtained their historical information from several sources.
5. A.S. Pushkin’s epic Poltava; M.Iu. Lermontov’s poem “Borodino”; L.N. Tolstoy’s War and Peace and Sevastopol Stories [Sevastopol’skie rasskazy]; A.N. Tolstoi’s Peter the First [Petr Pervyi]; V.M. Vasnetsov’s “Single Combat of Peresvet and Temir-murza [Chelubei]” [Poedinok Peresveta s Chelubeem]; V.I. Surikov’s “Suvorov Crossing the Alps” [Perekhod Suvorova cherez Al’py]; M.I. Glinka’s opera
ivan Susanin; and the song “The Variag” [Variag].
6. See F. Bomsdorf and G. Bordiugov, eds., Rossiia i strany Baltii, tsentral’noi i Vostochnoi evropy, iuzhnogo Kavkaza, tsentral’noi azii: starye i novye obrazy v sovremennykh uchebnikakh istorii. nauchnye doklady i soobshcheniia (Biblioteka liberal’nogo chteniia, pt. 15) (Moscow, 2003), p. 45.
7. For the Russian Federation Ministry of Foreign Affairs statement stated 3 March 2005, see the official MFA site at www.ln.mid.ru/brp_4.nsf/sps and RIA Novosti’s inoSMI site, which provides a foreign press survey and commentaries, at www.inosmi. ru/text/translation/217798.html. [All URLs accessed May 2010, at which time the inosmi page was not available.—Ed.]
8. I.V. Stalin, O Velikoi Otechestvennoi voine Sovetskogo Soiuza (Moscow, 1952), pp. 204–5.
9. N. Stapran, “Perelomnyi etap istorii: uroki, kotorye vynesla dlia sebia Iaponiia,” in 60-letie okonchaniia Vtoroi mirovoi i Velikoi Otechestvennoi: pobediteli i pobezhdennye v kontekste politiki, mifologii i pamiati. materialy k mezhdunarodnomu forumu (moskva, sentiatbr’ 2005), ed. F. Bomsdorf and G. Bordiugov (Biblioteka liberal’nogo chteniia, pt. 16) (Moscow, 2005), p. 217.
10. Ibid., p. 203.
11. Ibid., p. 202.
12. Ibid., p. 205.
13. Ibid., p. 202.
14. Ibid., p. 210.
15. Ibid.
16. Ibid., p. 207.
17. Ibid., pp. 206–7, 208–9.
18. G. Shuman and Zh. Skott [Howard Schuman and Jacqueline Scott], “Kollektivnaia pamiat’ pokolenii,” Sotsiologicheskie issledovaniia, 1992, no. 2, pp. 49, 52, 58, 60.
19. Ibid., p. 58 [quoted from Schuman and Scott, “Generations and Collective Memories,” american Sociological Review, vol. 54 (June 1984), p. 376—Trans.].
20. See Pervyi s’’ezd narodnykh deputatov SSSR, 25 maia–9 oktiabria 1989 g. Stenograficheskii otchet (Moscow, 1989), vol. 2, pp. 343–50.
21. See Vtoroi s’’ezd narodnykh deputatov SSSR, 12–24 dekabria 1989 g. Stenograficheskii otchet (Moscow, 1989), vol. 4, pp. 432–54, 616.
22. “Posle Afganistana,” Komsomol’skaia pravda, 21 December 1989.
23. See Ia. Okunev, Voinskaia strada (Petrograd, 1915); S. Fedorchenko, narod na voine. Frontovye zapisi (Kiev, 1917); N. Lugin (F.A. Stepun), iz pisem praporshchika- artillerista [Tomsk: Volodei, 2000]; V. Ropshin (B.V. Savinkov), iz deistvuiushchei armii (leto 1917 g.) (Moscow, 1918); V. Timofeev, Chasha skorbnaia (Moscow, 1918); G.N. Chemodanov, Poslednie dni staroi armii (Moscow and Leningrad, 1926);D. Os’kin, Zapiski soldata (Moscow, 1929); A. Aramilev, V dymu voiny (Moscow, 1930); L. Voitolovskii, Po sledam voiny. Pokhodnye zapiski (Leningrad, 1931); and V. Paduchev, Zapiski nizhnego china (Moscow, 1931).
24. M. Sholokhov’s Quiet Flows the don; A. Tolstoi’s Road to Calvary [Khozhdenie po mukam]; V. Vishevskii’s War [Voina]; N. Tikhonov’s War; K. Fedin’s Cities and years [Goroda i gody]; S. Sergeev-Tsenskii’s Brusilov’s Breakthrough [Brusilovskii proryv].
25. The “lost generation” (English), die verlorene Generation (German), and la génération perdue (French) may be translated both as poteriannoe pokolenie [lost in the sense of “nowhere to be found” or, in another semantic context, “unable to fi its bearings”—Trans.] and as pogibshee pokolenie [lost in the sense of “gone to waste” or “deceased”—Trans.]. The expression, which arose in a casual conversation about young men who had fought in the war and became one of the twentieth century’s most prevalent literary labels, was made famous by Ernest Hemingway, who used it as an epigraph for the Sun also Rises, which was published in 1926. For an account of the expression’s origins, see Hemingway, Prazdnik, kotoryi vsegda s soboi [A Movable Feast], in Sobranie sochinenii (Moscow, 1968), vol. 4, p. 395. The most visible spokes- man for the antiwar worldview of the “lost generation,” however, was not Hemingway but another writer—Erich Maria Remarque. In this regard, reference is usually made to his all Quiet on the Western Front, whose epigraph also speaks of a “generation”: “This book is neither an accusation nor a confession… . It will try simply to tell of a generation of men who, even though they may have escaped its shells, were destroyed by the war.” Remarque also wrote another book with the symbolic title the Road Back, about the “deferred” consequences of the war. Beset by a sense of ostracism, Remarque’s heroes cling desperately to one another, ready to square off against the authorities and a hostile world to which they are no more than misfi and blame the hypocritical society that fi sent them to war, then cast them off: see E.-M. Remark, na Zapadnom fronte bez peremen. Vozvrashchenie. Romany (Moscow: Khar’kov, 1999).
26. Henri Barbusse, under Fire (1916); Jaroslav Hašek, the Good Soldier Švejk (1923); Ernest Hemingway, in Our time (1925), the Sun also Rises (1926), and a Farewell to arms (1929); Arnold Zweig, the Case of Sergeant Grischa (1927); Erich Maria Remarque, all Quiet on the Western Front (1929) and the Road Back (1931); Richard Aldington, death of a Hero (1929).
27. Ernst Jünger, “the bard of war,” is Remarque’s ideological opposite. In the auto- biographical novel Storm of Steel, which he based on his diary, he works to persuade the reader that war is the most natural manifestation of human life, that only by war can a people be renewed, and that without it stagnation and degeneration will set in. Jünger’s oeuvre, which was highly popular in Germany after World War I, laid the psychological groundwork for the German nation’s subsequent military drive for vengeance: see Ernst Jünger, in Stahlgewittern (Berlin, 1920), translated as E. Iunger, V stal’nykh grozakh (St. Petersburg, 2000); “Geroika i strakh kak modusy chelovecheskogo sushchestvovaniia. Rannie proizvedeniia E. Iungera,” in Filosofi cheloveka: traditsii i sovremennost’. Sbornik obzorov (Moscow, 1991), pt. 2, pp. 196–221; and O.Iu. Plenkov, mify natsii protif mifov demokratii: nemetskaia politicheskaia traditsiia i natsizm (St. Petersburg, 1997), pp. 372–84 (“E. Iunger i ‘novyi natsionalizm’”).
28. N.A. Narochnitskaia, Za chto i s kem my voevali? (Moscow, 2005), pp. 36–37.
29. For the Russian Federation Ministry of Foreign Affairs statement dated 3 March 2005, see the MFA offi site at www.ln.mid.ru/brp_4.nsf/sps/BBA0F- 14BC6C1F9D4C3256F9D00567836/[URL not valid—Ed.].
33. From information supplied by the Presidential Press Service and posted on the Russian Federation Ministry of Foreign Affairs’ official site at www.ln.mid.ru/brp_4. nsf/sps/97B3AED890067D30C3256FFB0030159B/.
34. Narochnitskaia, Za chto i s kem my voevali? p. 66.
35. Quoted from A. Vladimirskii, “Pred’’iubileinaia ‘al’ternativnaia istoriia’: Pakt Molotova-Ribbentropa, okkupatsiia Pribaltiki i Katynskoe delo v rossiiskikh SMI i Internete,” in 60-letie okonchaniia Vtoroi mirovoi i Velikoi Otechestvennoi, p. 237. [The resolving section of Senate Concurrent Resolution 35 is found at http://thomas.loc.gov/cgi-bin/bdquery/z?d109:SC00035:. The full text of H.Con.128, inclusive of preamble, is found, inter alia, at www.ltembassyus.org/popup2.php?item_id=89/.—Trans.]
36. Shuman and Skott, “Kollektivnaia pamiat’ pokolenii,” p. 49 [Schuman and Scott, “Generations and Collective Memories,” p. 363].
37. Ibid., p. 57 [“Generations and Collective Memories,” p. 372—Trans.].
38. ekonomicheskie i sotsial’nye peremeny: monitoring obshchestvennogo mneniia. informatsionnyi biulleten’ VtsiOm, 1997, no. 5, pp. 12–13.
39. See V.I. Merkushin, “Velikaia Otechestvennaia voina 1941–1945 godov v istoricheskoi pamiati naroda,” Sotsiologiia vlasti, 2004, no. 6, pp. 58, 60.
40. Toshchenko, “Istoricheskoe soznanie i istoricheskaia pamiat’,” p. 4.
41. “ ‘Zverstva’Krasnoi armii, ili krovavyi sled osvobozhdeniia,” Rossiia v zarubezhnom tele- i radio-efire, Ria novosti, no. 046, 6–19 April 2005, p. 9.
42. V. Krestovskii, “Voina i novye ideologicheskie markery v anglo-amerikan- skikh SMI,” in 60-letie okonchaniia Vtoroi mirovoi i Velikoi Otechestvennoi, pp. 148, 158.
43. N. Trubnikova, “Kak publitsisty Latinskoi Evropy otmechali iubilei,” in ibid., p. 176.
44. R. Riurup [Reinhard Rürup], “Nemtsy i voina protiv Sovetskogo Soiuza,”Svobodnaia mysl’, 1994, no. 11, p. 80.
45. Quoted from Vladimirskii, “Pred’’iubileinaia ‘al’ternativnaia istoriia,’” p. 228.
46. A.G. Zdravomyslov, nemtsy o russkikh na poroge novogo tysiachiletiia. Besedy v Germanii: 22 ekspertnykh interv’iu s predstaviteliami nemetskoi intellektual’noi elity o Rossii—ee nastoiashchem, proshlom i budushchem—kontent-analiz i kommentarii (Moscow, 2003), p. 485.
47. Riurup, “Nemtsy i voina protiv Sovetskogo Soiuza,” p. 79.
48. Zdravomyslov, nemtsy o russkikh na poroge novogo tysiachiletiia, pp. 502–3. 49. Ibid., p. 516.
50. Ibid., pp. 516–17.
51. From information supplied by the Presidential Press Service and posted on the Russian Federation Ministry of Foreign Affairs’ official site at www.ln.mid.ru/brp_4. nsf/sps/CC6729D638704446C3256FFC00363A0E [quoted, with minor adjustments, from the uncredited English translation at www.mid.ru/brp_4.nsf/e78a48070f128a7b43 256999005bcbb3/4f8cf6624a94422cc3256ff90047cd24?OpenDocument/—Trans.].
52. Ibid.
53. Riurup, “Nemtsy i voina protiv Sovetskogo Soiuza,” pp. 80–81.
54. Krestovskii, “Voina i novye ideologicheskie markery,” pp. 148, 157–58.
55. R. Riurup, ed., Voina Germanii protiv Sovetskogo Soiuza: dokumental’naia ekspozitsiia goroda Berlina k 50-letiiu so dnia napadeniia Germanii na Sovetskii Soiuz (Berlin, 1992), p. 255.
56. See M.I. Semiriaga, Kak my upravliali Germaniei (Moscow, 1995), pp. 314–15; Rossiiskii arkhiv. Velikaia Otechestvennaia voina (Moscow, 1995), vol. 15 (4–5): Bitva za Berlin, p. 220.
57. Central Archive of the Ministry of Defense of the Russian Federation (TsAMO RF), f. 372, op. 6570, d. 78, ll. 30–32.
58. See “Prikaz verkhovnogo komandovaniia Vermakhta ot 6 iuniia 1941 g. otnositel’no obrashcheniia s politicheskimi komissarami Sovetskoi armii,” in Voina Germanii protiv Sovetskogo Soiuza, p. 46.
59. “Prikaz verkhovnogo komandovaniia Vermakhta,” p. 45 [quoted from “The Nuremberg Charges, Part III; (b) War Crimes on the Eastern Front; II. Treatment of offences committed against inhabitants by members of the Armed Forces and its employees,” at www.ess.uwe.ac.uk/genocide/highcmnd3.htm#Eastern/.—Trans.].
60. See M.Iu. Raginskii, niurnberg: pered sudom istorii (Moscow, 1986), p. 5.
61. Russian State Archive of Sociopolitical History (RGASPI), f. 17, op. 125, d. 321, l. 33.
62. Ibid., l. 99.
63. Vlast’, no 6 (357), 15 February 2000, p. 47.
64. RGASPI, f. 17, op. 125, d. 320, ll. 161–63.
65. E. Sherstianoi, “Germaniia i nemtsy v pis’makh krasnoarmeitsev vesnoi 1945 g.,” novaia i noveishaia istoriia, 2002, no. 2, p. 148.
66. Krestovskii, “Voina i novye ideologicheskie markery,” p. 148.
67. R.A. Medvedev, “Russkie i nemtsy cherez 50 let posle mirovoi voiny,” Kentavr, 1995, no. 1, p. 15.
68. See V.N. Kuznetsov, V.N. Ivanov, and V.K. Sergeev, iubilei Velikoi Pobedy: materialy k nauchnoi konferentsii “60-let pobedy v Velikoi Otechstvennoi voine” (Moscow, 2005), pp. 36–37, 56–57.
69. From information supplied by the Presidential Press Service and posted on the Russian Federation Ministry of Foreign Affairs’ official site at www.ln.mid.ru/brp_4. nsf/sps/CC6729D638704446C3256FFC00363A0E/.
70. www.ln.mid.ru/brp_4.nsf/sps/97B3AED890067D30C3256FFB0030159B/[The Figaro article, in French, is at www.rusembcanada.mid.ru/pr/090505_5.html.— Trans.]
72. www.ln.mid.ru/brp_4.nsf/sps/CC6729D638704446C3256FFC00363A0E/[quoted from an uncredited translation at http://eng.kremlin.ru/speeches/2005/05/07/0852_ty- pe82912type82916_87605.shtml—Trans.].
74. Quoted from Narochnitskaia, Za chto i s kem my voevali? p. 66 [the English transcript is at www.america.gov/st/washfile-english/2002/November/[email protected]—Trans.].
75. From a press release, “The Victory Celebration Abroad” [O iubilee Pobedy za rubezhom], dated 7 May 2005 and posted on the Russian Federation Ministry of Foreign Affairs’ official site at www.ln.mid.ru/brp_4.nsf/sps/091195668ECBC03FC 3256FFA004E45E8/.
77. See www.from-ua.com/news/41a2f33b6e002/[the English text of Resolution 59/26 is found, inter alia, at www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/UN/unga59_26.pdf —Trans.].
Additional information
Notes on contributors
Aleksandr s. Seniavskii
Aleksandr Spartakovich Seniavskii, Doctor of History, heads a center at the Institute of Russian History, Russian Academy of Sciences. Elena Spartakovna Seniavskaia, Doctor of History, is senior research fellow at the Institute of Russian History, Russian Academy of Sciences. This article was written with support from the Russian Foundation for Humanities Research (Project no. 06-01-02101a).
Notes renumbered for this edition.—Ed.
Elena S. Seniavskaia
Aleksandr Spartakovich Seniavskii, Doctor of History, heads a center at the Institute of Russian History, Russian Academy of Sciences. Elena Spartakovna Seniavskaia, Doctor of History, is senior research fellow at the Institute of Russian History, Russian Academy of Sciences. This article was written with support from the Russian Foundation for Humanities Research (Project no. 06-01-02101a).
Notes renumbered for this edition.—Ed.