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ABSTRACT
This review critically collates data on the emissions of polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins (PCDDs), dibenzofurans (PCDFs) and dioxin-like biphenyls (dl-PCBs), or in brief dioxins from a wide range of open burning sources. Open burning started raising attention in the nineties and has then been identified as one of the major global sources of dioxins, especially since evident guided emissions—principally from waste incineration and metallurgy—have been drastically curtailed. During combustion, dioxin emissions appear related to the proximate and ultimate analysis of the materials burning, to different combustion parameters (temperature, turbulence oxygen, etc.), to the successive phases in the development of a fire (flaming vs. smoldering), and to other factors influencing upon dioxins formation, such as heating, halogens, soot, ash, and catalytic transition metals. Although the roles of these factors are analyzed and discussed, they still remain difficult to evaluate and quantify, resulting in emission factor values ranging over several orders of magnitude, even after carefully controlled, repetitive experiments. Comprehensive comparisons of dioxins emission data are presented for both biogenic and anthropogenic sources, as well as some possible countermeasures toward reduction of dioxins from open burning.
Abbreviations
| 2,3,7,8-TCDD | = | 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin |
| 2,4-D | = | 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid |
| APCDs | = | air pollution control devices |
| APCS | = | air pollution control system |
| ASR | = | automobile shredder residue |
| BFRs | = | brominated flame retardants |
| CBz | = | chlorobenzenes |
| CP | = | chlorophenols |
| dl-PCBs | = | dioxin-like polychlorinated biphenyls |
| DSC | = | differential scanning calorimetry |
| EF | = | emission factor |
| EPA | = | U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. |
| G/P | = | gas phase and particulate |
| HAPs | = | hazardous air pollutants |
| HCBz | = | hexachlorobenzene |
| HDPE | = | high-density polyeth(yl)ene |
| I-TEQ | = | international toxic equivalence quantity |
| MCPA | = | (4-Chloro-2-methylphenoxy) acetic acid |
| mixed PXDD/Fs | = | mixed polybromochloro-dibenzo-p-dioxins and dibenzofurans |
| MSWI | = | municipal solid waste incineration |
| MSWIs | = | municipal solid waste incinerators |
| NOx | = | nitrogen oxides |
| OBTF | = | open burning test facility |
| PAHs | = | Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons |
| PBDDs | = | polybrominated dibenzo-p-dioxins |
| PBDEs | = | polybrominated diphenyl ethers |
| PBDFs | = | polybrominated dibenzofurans |
| PCA | = | principal component analysis |
| PCBs | = | polychlorinated biphenyls |
| PCDDs | = | polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins |
| PCDFs | = | polychlorinated dibenzofurans |
| PCN | = | polychlorinated naphthalenes |
| PE | = | polyethylene |
| PICs | = | products of incomplete combustion |
| PM | = | particulate matter |
| POPs | = | persistent organic pollutants |
| PVC | = | polyvinyl chloride |
| REP | = | relative effect potency |
| SVOCs | = | semivolatile organic compounds |
| TEFs | = | toxic equivalency factors |
| TEQ | = | toxic equivalency |
| TOC | = | Total Organic Carbon |
| TRF | = | toxicity reduction factor |
| UNEP | = | United Nations Environment Programme |
| UNIDO | = | United Nations Industrial Development Organization |
| VM | = | volatile matters |
| VOCs | = | volatile organic compounds |
| WEEE | = | waste electrical and electronic equipment |
| WHO | = | World Health Organization |
Funding
The Program of Introducing Talents of Discipline to University (B08026) and the PaoYu-Kong International Fund financed this study.