Overcoming “Colonization of the Mind” Through Citizenship Education: A Four-Dimensional Perspective

Abstract

This article is based on research into the phenomenon referred to as the “colonization of the mind.” It commences with a discussion of four different backgrounds and concomitant experiences regarding this persistent form of colonization: two with reference to the authors of this article, and two with reference to distinguishable categories of Indigenous people who still feel the enduring effects of the colonization of the mind. After theorizing about the “living in two worlds” that seems to be typical of the colonization of the mind, the authors propose a number of biblically justifiable measures that can be implemented by those still feeling themselves suffering from this lingering form of colonization. These measures include the adoption of a reformed ontology, anthropology, ethics, and education. The paper concludes with a brief discussion of an adapted Citizenship Education school program that may contribute to the eradication of the colonization of the mind issue.

Correction Statement

This article has been corrected with minor changes. These changes do not impact the academic content of the article.

Notes

1 “Citizenship Education” (with capital letters) refers to the school subject (where applicable). When written in lowercase, this term refers to the broad scholarly field of study.

2 About a month after these words were written by Broer, we came upon similar words written by the well-known polymath and philosopher A. C. Grayling, a citizen of Great Britain, another former colonizing empire. We include his statement at the end of this article as Annexure A. Similar sentiments have, in the recent past, also been expressed by Clara Keating (2019), a scholar working at Coimbra University in Portugal. Noteworthy in this regard are also the works by Sylvia Wynter (1984, 2003) in which she attempts to deconstruct the epistemic and cognitive orders of Europe that formed the substratum of imperialism and colonialism.

3 Also occasionally referred to as “Coloreds” or “people of mixed race.” Many of the members of this group find these terms offensive and prefer to be referred to as “Black” or “Brown.” Others prefer none of these references, given the fact that South Africa has been declared a non-racial, liberal democracy.

4 If colonization is White as dominance by a foreign power, apartheid cannot be regarded as a White form of colonization, as it was imposed by White South Africans on other South Africans. This is a moot point, however. Oliver and Oliver (2017) conclude their paper with this thought: “Fortunately, after the fourth and last colonisation of the country and after much pain and oppression and apartheid, the country became a Democracy, establishing a rainbow nation where everybody has equal rights” (p. 7).

5 And scholars writing on their behalf or in their interest.

6 This group includes all those countries in which the colonizers either left when independence was gained or where a small, politically relatively powerless group of settlers remained and committed themselves to the aspirations and the future of the newly liberated country, such as South Africa, India, Indonesia, Vietnam, and Namibia (see Marais, 2022).

7 A reader of an Afrikaans newspaper in South Africa recently described this loss of political power with the following words: “I was born, grew up and grew old in a ‘European state’ at the southern-most tip of Africa … and woke up one morning, more than 20 years ago to find that I did not live in Europe (anymore) but in Africa. We have no option but to reconcile ourselves with the new circumstances … or to join a new Great Trek to foreign countries” (Venter, 2022, p. 16, translated from the original Afrikaans).

8 According to many Indigenous communities, colonization is currently being perpetuated by globalization, neo-neoliberalism, and late capitalism that tend to alienate them from their water resources, genetic material, and public services and threaten their cultural integrity. In this article, we do not attend to these forms of neo-colonialism, but we agree with Hershey (2019) and Majumder (2021) that the effects of these developments can be devastating for Indigenous and poor people (also see Gaini, 2019). These developments, as Ben-Porath and Smith (2013) argue, are not only detrimental to the lives and cultures of Indigenous people but are also reinforcing patterns of economic inequality and cultural domination in many societies around the globe. In countries such as the United States of America, the lives of the descendants of the slaves intersect in many ways with those of the Native Peoples, according to King (2013). The intersection and intertwinement between these two groups are not always unproblematic. King (2013) once heard “a Native feminist (in Toronto, Canada) call black people ‘Black Settlers’” (p. 21).

9 This divide makes it difficult for researchers such as the authors of this article to decide where precisely to locate the views of a specific author. It is not possible, for instance, to decide, based on the name or surname of a person whether they are a member of the White settler group or of those currently feeling colonized by the White settler group. Carroll (2018), for instance, declares that she is writing as “a white, cisgender female with a ‘queer’ sexuality” who regards “the current context [of Canada] as colonized and as a settler colonial state” (p. 22). She takes account of her “positionality as a queer white woman on stolen land” and notes her “privilege and implications in white privilege” (Carroll, 2018, p. 23). It is clear from this account that Carroll sees herself as a member of the White settler group but associates herself with the plight of the colonized Indigenous Peoples.

10 We contend that everyone, especially young people, suffering from the colonization of the mind should be exposed to a Citizenship Education program that will help them to overcome this condition. In some countries, such as South Africa, the current school subject Citizenship Education (as part of Life Orientation), as well as other amenable school subjects, can be employed for this purpose. In countries such as the Netherlands, where Citizenship Education as a single, coherent subject does form part of the school curriculum, it can be attended to in other subjects amenable to this task.

11 A question that cannot be dealt with in the context of this article is “What should the former colonizers now do to assuage their own colonization of the mind, their feelings of guilt, pain, and remorse about their ancestors’ perpetrations against the Indigenous inhabitants of the former colonies?” Some regard it as mandatory to apologize (e.g., the German chancellor apologizing to the Herrero and the Ovambo in Namibia; the Pope apologizing to the Indigenous People of Canada; ex-president F. W. de Klerk and one of his ministers, Adriaan Vlok, to non-White South Africans). Based on Galatians 6:4–6, others argue that they can only take responsibility for their own actions and, therefore, should not apologize for the actions of their precursors.

12 The presence of immigrants from Suriname in the Netherlands constitutes a special case. The children of these immigrants now sit side by side with Dutch learners in school classes. This has given rise to an interesting dynamic in these schools and classes.

Additional information

Notes on contributors

J. L. Van der Walt

Hannes van der Walt is a Emeritus Professor, and specialist researcher at the North-West University, South Africa. He has authored more than 240 articles in accredited national and international journals.

C. C. Wolhuter

Charl Wolhuter is a Comparative and International Education Professor at the Potchefstroom Campus of the North-West University, South Africa. He is the author of various books and articles on History of Education and Comparative Education.

N. A. Broer

Nico Broer is a Extraordinary Professor at the Potchefstroom Campus of the North-West University, South Africa. He is the author of various articles on religious tolerance, citizenship education, educational ideals and freedom of education.