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Acknowledgements
The author would like to acknowledge support from TUBA for research on this article, thank Philip Robins of the University of Oxford and Rosemary Hollis of the Royal Institute of International Affairs for their hospitality while in Britain, and thank Necati Polat of Middle East Technical University for his comments on the first draft of this article.
Notes
28 CitationA. J. Toynbee, ‘The Turkish Republic today,’ Listener, 40(1039), 23 December 1948, pp. 953–955.
27 Toynbee, The World and the West, pp. 27–31; and Toynbee, Civilization on Trial, pp. 196–201.
26 Toynbee, Civilization on Trial, p. 201.
25 CitationA. J. Toynbee, The World and the West (London: Oxford University Press, 1953), pp. 25–26.
24 CitationToynbee, A Study of History, vol. IX; and A. J. Toynbee, Civilization on Trial (London: Oxford University Press, 1948), chap. 10.
23 Toynbee, The Western Question, pp. 328–335.
22 Toynbee, The Western Question, pp. 13–15.
21 CitationToynbee & Kirkwood, Turkey, pp. 3–4.
20 Toynbee, The Western Question, pp. 15–17, 320–321.
19 CitationToynbee, A Study of History, vol. I, p. 9.
18 Toynbee, The Western Question, p. viii.
17 Toynbee & Kirkwood, Turkey, pp. 36–37; and Toynbee, The Western Question, chap. 1.
16 CitationArnold J. Toynbee, The Western Question in Greece and Turkey: A Study in the Contact of Civilisations (London: Constable, 1922).
15 A. J. Toynbee's A Study of History was published in five stages between 1934 and 1961 by Oxford University Press. Volumes I–III appeared in 1934, with a second edition in 1935; volumes IV–VI in 1939, volumes VII–X in 1954, volume XI (Historical Atlas and Gazetteer) in 1959, and volume XII (Reconsiderations) in 1961. For the critics, see CitationM. F. Ashley Montagu (Ed.) Toynbee and History: Critical Essays and Reviews (Boston: Porter Sargent, 1956). On the appellation ‘non-sense book,’ see CitationWilliam H. McNeill, Arnold J. Toynbee: A Life (New York and London: Oxford University Press, 1989).
14 See the review by CitationH. G. Koeningsberger in English Historical Review, 76 (April 1961), pp. 343–344.
13 CitationA. J. P. Taylor, Much learning …, New Statesman and Nation, 48(1232), 16 October 1954, pp. 478–480.
12 CitationCollingwood, The Idea of History, pp. 159–165.
11 Some scholars even argue that the Eastern Question in its conventional sense did not come to an end with the collapse of the Ottoman Empire, the present disputes and conflicts in Cyprus and Palestine being considered as a continuation of the classical Eastern Question. See CitationL. Carl Brown, International Politics and the Middle East: Old Rules; Dangerous Games (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1984), p. 11.
10 For a good and balanced treatise of European ascendance, see CitationWilliam H. McNeill, The Rise of the West: A History of the Human Community (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1963).
9 CitationArnold Toynbee's useful account of the industrial revolution is Lectures on the Industrial Revolution in England, Popular Addresses, Notes and Other Fragments (London: Rivingtons, 1884).
8 Of the vast literature on nationalism and nationality I would like to mention two works in relation to the theme of this paper: CitationElie Kedourie, Nationalism (London: Hutchinson, 1960); and CitationHans Kohn, The Idea of Nationalism: A Study in its Origins and Background (New York: Macmillan, 1944).
7 See Robin G. Collingwood, The Idea of History (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1961); and CitationMichael Oakeshott, Rationalism in Politics and Other Essays (London: Methuen, 1962).
6 The literature on Westernization/modernization is vast. In my conceptualization I have benefited partly from CitationMarshall G. S. Hodgson, Rethinking World History: Essays on Europe, Islam and World History (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993).
5 These terms and Toynbee's account will be dealt with below.
4 For an account of the Karlowitz negotiations, see CitationRifa'at Ali abou-El-Haj, ‘Ottoman diplomacy at Karlowitz,’ in: A. Nuri Yurdusev (Ed.) Ottoman Diplomacy: Conventional or Unconventional? (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2004), pp. 89–113.
3 The widely read account of the Eastern Question in the literature of diplomatic history is CitationM. S. Anderson, The Eastern Question 1774–1923: A Study in International Relations (London: Macmillan, 1966). It is worth noting an earlier study by CitationJ. A. R. Marriott, The Eastern Question: An Historical Study in European Diplomacy (London: Oxford University Press, 1917). The text of the Treaty of Kuçuk Kaynarca can be found in CitationJ. C. Hurewitz (Ed.) The Middle East and North Africa in World Politics: A Documentary Record, 2nd ed., vol. 1, European Expansion, 1535–1914 (New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 1975). For an analysis of the Treaty, see CitationRoderic H. Davison, ‘Russian skill and Turkish imbecility: the Treaty of Kuchuk Kainardji reconsidered,’ Slavic Review, 35 (1976), pp. 463–483.
2 Arnold J. Toynbee & Kenneth P. Kirkwood, Turkey (London: Benn, 1926), p. 9.
1 For a brief overview of how the European powers perceived the Eastern Question, see CitationJ. C. Hurewitz, ‘Eastern Question,’ in: Encyclopedia of the Modern Middle East and North Africa, 2nd ed. (Farmington Hills, MI: Thomson Gale, 2004), vol. II, pp. 738–743.