BIOLOGICAL AND CHEMICAL WEAPONS ARMS CONTROL IN THE MIDDLE EAST

Abstract

Nonproliferation policies to prevent biological and chemical weapons use are important, but insufficient, particularly in view of the rise of global terrorism. Given the history of developing and using these weapons, it is crucial that governments properly prepare for biological and chemical threats, whether naturally occurring or man-made, such as by developing and managing effective healthcare infrastructure to mitigate widespread illness and injuries resulting from pandemics or terrorist attacks. Although the Middle East is one of the most sensitive and complex areas in the world—especially regarding regional arms control efforts and prevention—coordinating preparedness strategies among states in the region may be possible. Cooperatively addressing biological and chemical threats could lead to constructive progress towards the otherwise elusive goal of establishing a weapons of mass destruction-free zone in the Middle East.

Keywords:

• Middle East
• Israel
• Iran
• Syria
• biological weapons
• Biological Weapons Convention
• chemical weapons

Notes

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4. Mark Wheelis, Lajor Rózsa, Malcolm Dando, eds., Deadly Cultures: Biological Weapons Since 1945 (Boston: Harvard University Press, 2006), pp. 47–83, 108–31.

5. See, for instance, Maria Rost Rublee, “Egypt's Nuclear Weapons Program,” Nonproliferation Review 13 (November 2006), pp. 555–67; M. Zuhair Diab, “Syria's Chemical and Biological Weapons: Assessing Capabilities and Motivations,” Nonproliferation Review 4 (Fall 1997), pp. 104–11; Jonathan B. Tucker, “Evidence Iraq Used Chemical Weapons During the 1991 Persian Gulf War,” Nonproliferation Review 4 (Spring-Summer 1997), pp. 114–22; Dany Shoham, “Chemical and Biological Weapons in Egypt,” Nonproliferation Review 5 (Spring-Summer 1998), pp. 48–58.

6. Jonathan B. Tucker, War of Nerves: Chemical Warfare from World War I to Al-Qaeda (New York: Pantheon Books, 2001).

7. David Friedman, Bracha Rager-Zisman, Eitan Bibi, and Alex Keynan, “The Bioterrorism Threat and Dual-use Biotechnological Research: An Israeli Perspective,” Science and Engineering Ethics 16 (2010), pp. 85–97.

8. Faizal Bin Baharuddin, Lars S. Wegner, and Erik D. Heegaard, “Kuman Warrior—Annual Malaysian Armed Forces Health Services Division Smallpox Incident Response Workshops,” Medical Corps International Forum 4 (April 2010), pp. 22–29.

9. See Protocol for the Prohibition of the Use of Asphyxiating, Poisonous, or Other Gases, and of Bacteriological Methods of Warfare, June 17, 1925. <www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/INTRO/280?OpenDocument>.

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11. See Convention on the Prohibition of the Development, Production, and Stockpiling of Bacteriological (Biological) and Toxin Weapons, March 26, 1975, <http://dosfan.lib.uic.edu/acda/treaties/bwc1.htm>.

12. David Friedman, “The US National Strategy for Dealing with Biological Threats,” INSS Insight No. 155 (January 12, 2010), <www.inss.org.il/publications.php?cat=21&incat=&read=3687>.

13. Avner Cohen, “Israel and Chemical/Biological Weapons: History, Deterrence and Arms Control,” Nonproliferation Review 8 (Fall-Winter 2001), p. 25.

14. See Danny Shoham, Chemical and Biological Weapons in the Arab States and Iran—An Existential Threat to Israel? (Shaarei Tikva: Ariel Center for Policy Research Publishers, 2001), pp. 73–98, <www.acpr.org.il/publications/books/syria-4-in-1-shoham.pdf>; Nuclear Threat Initiative, “Syria Country Profile—Chemical,” updated August 2012, <www.nti.org/country-profiles/syria/chemical/>; Nuclear Threat Initiative, “Iran Country Profile—Chemical,” updated November 2011, <www.nti.org/country-profiles/iran/chemical/>; and James Farwell, “Syria's WMD Threat,” National Interest, April 5, 2012, <http://nationalinterest.org/commentary/syrias-wmd-threat-6737>.

15. Emily B. Landau, “ACRS: What Worked, What Didn't, and What Could Be Relevant for the Region Today,” Disarmament Forum 2 (July 2008), pp.13–20.

16. See “Final Document of the 2010 Review Conference of the Parties to the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons,” 2010, <www.un.org/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=NPT/CONF.2010/50%20(VOL.I)>.

17. “The Middle East Consortium on Infectious Disease Surveillance,” MedicaFormatica, July 3, 2008, see <www.mecidsnetwork.org>; see also L. Gresham, A. Ramlawi, J. Briski, M. Richardon, T. Taylor, “Trust Across Borders: Responding to 2009 H1N1 influenza in the Middle East,” Biosecurity and Bioterrorrism: Biodefense Strategy, Practice, and Science 7 (December 2009), pp. 399–404, <www.nti.org/media/pdfs/bsp.2009.pdf?_=1322495797>.

18. Erik D. Heegaard and David. Friedman, “Smallpox Impacting National Security,” Medical Corps International Forum 4 (2010), pp. 16–20.

19. This informal consensus has been made evident at several track-two discussions in the region that the author has participated in, including, but not limited to “Global Networking to Promote Biosecurity and Limit Dual Use Risks: The Science-Ethics-Law-Security Nexus” conference, organized by the International Working Group and the Landau Network-Centro Volta, held in Como, Italy, November 2010, <www.centrovolta.it/landau/StaticPage.aspx?Control=Nuclear>.

20. Dore Gold and Lt. Col. (res.) Jonathan D. Halevi, “Al-Qaeda, Zarqawi, and Israel: Is There a New Jihadi Threat Destabilizing the Eastern Front?” Jerusalem Viewpoints, No. 538, Jerusalem Center for Public Affairs, January 1, 2006, <http://jcpa.org/il/vp538.htm>.

21. Australia Group, “Guidelines for Transfers of Sensitive Chemical or Biological Weapons,” June 2012. <www.australiagroup.net/en/guidelines.html>.

22. UN Security Council Resolution 1540, S/Res/1540, April 28, 2004.

23. See “Import and Export (Control of Chemical, Biological, and Nuclear Export) Order, 5764-2004, Tamas.gov.il, 2004, <www.tamas.gov.il/NR/rdonlyres/35E9E31F-AA99-40E9-A750-2AA349FBE588/0/ImportandExport_ControlofChemicalBiologicalandNuclearExport_Order.pdf>.

24. See “Proliferation Security Initiative,” US Department of State, <www.state.gov/t/isn/c10390.htm>.

25. See “Ha'moatza l'bakarat mehkarim b'meholeley m'khalot biologim” [The Regulation of Research into Biological Disease Agents Act] Knesset, 2008, <www.health.gov.il/hozer/MM_nehalim.pdf>.