Drinking water and health assessment in a Northern Arizona community

Abstract

Arizona is a mineral rich state that relies on a mix of surface and ground water supplies for drinking water requirements. Small, rural water systems relying on groundwater frequently encounter elevated metal(loid) measures, particularly inorganic arsenic (As ^{+3, +5}). Such contaminant occurrences can be associated with adverse health outcomes including cancers. The Hopi Environmental Health Project examined drinking water quality and water consumption behaviors from 76 homes on Hopi lands over a four-year period. Water samples were analyzed for 28 elements and compared to US Environmental Protection Agengy (EPA) maximum contaminant levels (MCL). Only municipal/piped water had a mean arsenic concentration (11.01 µg/L) exceeding the MCL (10.0 µg/L). All other water types and elements occurred below MCL when detected. A lifetime cancer and hazard quotient associated with arsenic consumption through each water type was performed and piped/municipal water was found to carry the greatest risks (9.96 cases per 10,000 people). Results from this study showed the potential for multiple contaminants to be present in drinking water from Hopi lands and the need for further health assessment of routine exposure to low doses of contaminant mixtures through drinking water.

Keywords:

• Drinking water
• maximum contaminant level
• risk assessment
• arsenic
• Native American

Acknowledgements

We want to express our deepest appreciation to the Hopi Tribe for considering the project and to all project participants and their families for welcoming us into their homes. We are extremely grateful to our Hopi community partners, members of the Hopi Community Advisory Board, and the incredible Community Health Representatives and Field Technicians that made this project possible (Joyce Hamilton, Delores Ami, Elyse M3535onroe, Rose Namoki, Beatrice Norton, Madeline Sahneyah, Gayl Honanie, Alfonso Mahkewa, Sehoy Talaswaima, Philbert Poseyesva, Del Marino).

Disclosure statement

No conflict of interest has been reported by the authors.

Additional information

Funding

This research was supported by the Institute of Education Sciences, U.S. Department of Education, through Grant R305B160003 to the University of Arizona. The opinions expressed are those of the authors and do not represent views of the Institute or the U.S. Department of Education. Other funding was provided by NIEHS: P50ES026089, P30 ES006694, T32 ES007091, and EPA: R836151. "Research reported in this publication was supported by the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences of the National Institutes of Health under Award Number P50ES026089. The content is solely the responsibility of the authors and does not necessarily represent the official views of the National Institutes of Health." "This publication was developed under Assistance Agreements No. 836151 awarded by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency to The University of Arizona. It was not formally reviewed by EPA prior to the publication of the dissertation. The views expressed in this document were solely those of the authors and did not necessarily reflect those of the Agency. EPA does not endorse any products or commercial services mentioned in this publication." In addition, while each of the manuscripts were approved by the Community Advisory Board and Hopi Tribe, “the views expressed in this document are solely those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect those of the Hopi Tribe.”