A not so undesirable status? Widowhood options and widows’ living conditions in post-emancipation rural Estonia

ABSTRACT

Widowhood has been a strongly gendered experience, and elderly widows, in particular, have traditionally been seen as one of the most vulnerable groups in society. This article observes remarriage behaviour and widows’ living conditions in the Russian Baltic province of Livland in the post-emancipation era. Detailed findings are presented for one community in the parish of Paistu and two communities in the parish of Helme. The article combines cross-sectional and longitudinal population data with community court records. The article aims to show that if the economic situation of the widowed people improved in the post-emancipation era, older widows (>40) increasingly used possible alternatives to remarriage. The area of investigation was characterised by low propensity to remarry (less than 20%) and the likelihood of remarriage among the landless diminished over the course of the nineteenth century, but among landholding peasants, the decline became more pronounced in the second half of the century. The vast majority of the farmer widows and over half of the landless widows lived with their children, unmarried or married. The upkeep of the elderly was arranged through intergenerational cohabitation both among the farmers and the landless. Court records indicate that farmers’ widows were properly provided for and, if the children happened to be reluctant, the court compelled them to fulfil their legal obligations to their mother or stepmother. The average number of years spent in widowhood was 19 years and approximately 60% of all women widowed between 1834 and 1885 lived longer than 65 years.

KEYWORDS:

• Widowhood
• remarriage
• old-age support
• living arrangements

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author.

Archival sources

National Archives of Estonia in Tartu

RA, EAA.536 Riga Department of Peasant Bank

RA, EAA.934 Parish court of the sixth district of Pärnumaa

RA, EAA.1068 Township government of Holstre

RA, EAA.1286 Lutheran Congregation of Paistu

RA, EAA.1296 Lutheran Congregation of Helme

RA, EAA.1865 Collection of Livonian soul revision lists

RA, EAA.1918 Apostolic Orthodox Congregation of Helme-Tõrva

RA, EAA.1964 Apostolic Orthodox Congregation of Priipalu

RA, EAA.1974 Apostolic Orthodox Congregation of Suislepa

RA, EAA.1995 Apostolic Orthodox Congregation of Viljandi

RA, EAA.3305 Township government of Leebiku

RA, EAA.3528 Community court of Leebiku

RA, EAA.3671 Community court of Holstre

RA, EAA.3760 Viljandi Real Estate Office

The Estonian Folklore Archives in Tartu

E Folklore collection of M. J. Eisen

ERA Folklore collection of the Estonian Folklore Archives

H I, II Folklore collection of J. Hurt

Latvian State Historical Archives in Riga

LVVA.235 Church records of the Latvian Lutheran parishes

Notes

1. The great majority of Estonians in this region were Lutherans, but in the two Helme communities, there were also a considerable number of Russian Orthodox parishioners. Families were often mixed and the members who were Russian Orthodox were more difficult to track.

2. RA, EAA.536.2.166.

3. Lihwlandi-ma Tallorahwa Seädus (Tartu, 1820); Lihwlandi Talorahwa Säädüse-raamat (Tartu, 1863).

4. Lihwlandi Talorahwa Säädüse-raamat, §§ 989, 994, 995.

5. RA, EAA.3760.1.12, fos. 97v-98 23.4.1876.

6. Lihwlandi-ma Tallorahwa Seädus; Lihwlandi Talorahwa Säädüse-raamat; Regeln, betreffend die Einrichtungen der allgemeinen Wohlfahrt in den Landgemeinden der Ostseegouvernements. [Reval, 1866].

7. RA, EAA.3671.1.56, fos. 40v-41 21.11.1888; EAA.3671.1.11, fos. 207v-208 25.4.1875; EAA.3671.1.18, f. 3; EAA.3671.1.19, f. 15v; EAA.3760.1.798; 825; 922; 994.

8. RA, EAA.3671.1.56, f. 31v 1.3.1885.

9. RA, EAA.3671.1.56, fos. 29v-30 23.4.1882.

10. RA, EAA.3528.1.12, fos. 17-19v 7.3.1888.

11. RA, EAA.3671.1.16, fos. 115v-116 13.3.1881.

12. RA, EAA.3528.1.12, f. 22v 1.7.1888.

13. RA, EAA.3671.1.2286; EAA.3671.1.1034.

14. RA, EAA.3528.1.12, f. 6v 21.7.1867.

15. RA, EAA.3528.1.12, f. 44v 8.5.1875.

16. RA, EAA.3671.1.18, f. 21 22.5.1881; fos. 164v-165v 15.1.1882.

17. RA, EAA.3671.1.9, fos. 125-125v 2.5.1869.

18. RA, EAA.3671.1.9, f. 72 25.10.1868, f. 99v 14.2.1869; EAA.3671.1.10, f. 122v 23.10.1870; EAA.3671.1.11, fos. 222v-223 13.6.1875; EAA.3671.1.12, fos. 45-46 6.2.1876; fos. 112-113 18.5.1876; f. 125v 4.6.1876; EAA.3671.1.14, f. 24v 9.3.1879; EAA.3671.1.15, f. 7 8.2.1880; EAA.3671.1.18, fos. 134-134v 20.11.1881; f. 147 11.12.1881; EAA.3671.1.20; fos. 116v-117 16.09.1883.

19. RA, EAA.3671.1.9, f. 64v 20.9.1868.

20. RA, EAA.1068.1.7, f. 226 23.10.1891; EAA.3305.1.9, f. 32v 6.3.1897; EAA.3308.1.14, f. 84 26.4.1894.

21. RA, EAA.3308.1.14, f. 29 22.10.1891.

22. RA, EAA.1068.1.8, f. 173v 27.9.1895.

23. RA, EAA.934.1.3262.

24. RA, EAA.1068.1.7, fos. 184v-185 6.3.1890.

25. RA, EAA.1068.1.7, f. 173 9.3.1889.

26. RA, EAA.3671.1.10, f. 181v 29.10.1871; EAA.3671.1.14, f. 24v 9.3.1879.

27. E 51952/3 (25) < Karksi 1889; H I 3, 179/80 (1) < Halliste 1890, H II 25, 526 (8) < Tarvastu 1890; H II 1, 609 (788) < Lüganuse 1888.

28. ERA II 181, 56(17) < Saarde 1937.

29. H I 6 265/7 < Vastseliina 1894.

30. The authors describe their childhood in rural southern Estonia: Kitzberg (1855–1927), Hindrey (1875–1947), Hansen (1879–1964), Suburg (1841–1923), Roht (1891–1950), and Ast-Rumor (1886–1971).

31. RA, EAA.3671.1.11, fos. 222v-223, 13.6.1875.

32. RA, EAA.3671.1.13, f. 165, 10.2.1878.

33. RA, EAA.3671.1.9, f. 101 28.2.1869; EAA.3671.1.10, f. 146 16.4.1871.

34. ERA, H II 31, 655 (6) < Otepää 1890); E 9756 < Põltsamaa 1894); H II 13, 100 (48) < Koeru 1888.

35. E 20361/3 (5) < Kõpu 1895.

36. ERA, H II 3, 611/2 (166) < Lüganuse 1890.

37. RA, EAA.3671.1.11, f. 38 20.06.1873; EAA.3671.1.11, f. 208v 25.04.1875; EAA.3671.1.13, fos. 35v-36v 11.3.1877.

38. ERA II 297, 196/216 (8) < Keila 1941.

39. RA, EAA.3671.1.11, f. 208v 25.4.1875; EAA.3671.1.13, fos. 35v-36v 11.3.1877.

40. RA, EAA.3671.1.12, fos. 79v-80 12.03.1876; fos. 132-132v 18.7.1876.

41. RA, EAA.3671.1.12, fos. 109-110v 14.5.1876.

42. RA, EAA.3671.1.9, fos. 125-125v 2.5.1869.

43. RA, EAA.3671.1.21, f. 303 25.10.1885.

44. RA, EAA.3671.1. 20, fos. 100-102v 13.8.1883, f. 359 14.10.1883.

45. RA, EAA.3671.1. 21, f. 173 28.6.1885.

46. RA, EAA.3528.1.12, f. 8v 16.10.1875.

47. Data is missing for 1800–1833.

Additional information

Funding

This work was supported by the Eesti Teadusagentuur [PUT 1517]; Haridus-ja Teadusministeerium [EDDK 29].