ABSTRACT
Despite the lack of a strong evidence base, Animal-Assisted Interventions (AAIs) are becoming increasingly popular as a therapeutic tool for special populations with a variety of psychological and physical conditions. This paper introduces a special series of articles which address the proposed theories and processes underpinning potential effects of AAIs. We recommend strategies for improving the evidence base of AAIs giving specific examples in special populations (e.g., children with Autism Spectrum Disorder [ASD]). We consider the challenges in AAI research and suggest directions for future research.
Animal-Assisted Intervention (AAI) has been practiced informally since at least the 18th century (Serpell, Citation2015). More recently, the concept and practice of Animal-Assisted Therapy (AAT) was revived by Levinson in his book Pet-Oriented Child Psychotherapy (Citation1969). He described anecdotally the impact of his own dog in a clinical setting as an encouragement to others to research the potential benefits of AAT. In the 1980s and 1990s, these writings were followed by more rigorously controlled, properly analyzed, and widely cited studies in established medical or health-related journals by Friedmann, Lynch, and Thomas (Citation1980); Serpell (Citation1991); Anderson, Reid, and Jennings (Citation1992); Friedmann and Thomas (Citation1995); and Allen and Blascovich (Citation1996), among others. Only relatively recently, AAI programs have become widespread in institutional and clinical settings (Serpell, Citation2015). Today, AAIs are practiced with people at all stages of life, and can be found in every conceivable medical or mental health care setting, as well as in schools, universities, workplaces, community centers, juvenile detention facilities, and prisons. Despite widespread practice, the field of AAI currently lacks a unified, widely accepted or empirically supported theoretical framework for explaining how and why AAI is potentially therapeutic (reviewed in Kruger & Serpell, Citation2010). Research into the efficacy of AAI as a practice remains in its infancy (Griffin, McCune, Maholmes, & Hurley, Citation2011; McCune et al., Citation2015). In particular, most AAI research is conducted in the absence of a “developmental lens” that would take into account the individual’s developmental history and status, including age at first exposure to, periodicity, and nature of their human-animal interaction (HAI) experiences, and how these might moderate the efficacy of the AAI (Esposito, McCune, Griffin, & Maholmes, Citation2011; Jalongo, Citation2015; Melson, Citation2003).
Recognizing the emergence of this compelling new field, the National Institutes of Health (NIH) held a technology assessment workshop, The Health Benefits of Pets (NIH, Citation1987). The aims of this workshop were to provide the scientific community with a synthesis of current knowledge, to outline a framework for future research, and to supply the public with the information needed to make informed decisions regarding the health benefits of pets. More recently, the NIH - Mars-WALTHAM public-private partnership, established in 2008 (Esposito, McCune, Griffin, & Maholmes, Citation2011), led to a series of workshops and associated Requests For Applications (RFAs) for grant funding from the NIH (McCune et al., Citation2014). The most recent workshop from the partnership focused on animal-assisted interventions in special populations, and is the basis for a special series of five papers which we now introduce. Reflecting Heinz Werner’s Orthogenetic Principle (Werner, Citation1957), the advancement of research on AAIs has progressed from broad descriptive studies of the beneficial effects of HAI to methodologically rigorous research that contributes to our understanding of human development across the lifespan and introduces novel research methods that have the potential to enable developmental science to better understand the nature and therapeutic potential of AAIs (Amiot & Bastian, Citation2015; Borgi & Cirulli, Citation2016; Buttner, Citation2016).
The thematic papers will be published across two issues of Applied Developmental Science (ADS). Those in the first issue focus on theory and methodology of AAI within a special population’s context. Beetz summarizes potential theories and possible mechanisms of action in AAI. Kazdin recommends strategies to improve the evidence base for AAI, including suggestions for enhanced methods and strategic planning for the field.
The papers in the second issue take a real-world focus. O’Haire provides a review of the recent scientific literature to assess the effectiveness of AAI with children diagnosed with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD), and includes recommendations for future research. Huss addresses the intersection of laws relating to access for persons with disabilities and AAI, distinguishing between service, assistance, and therapy animals. Her discussion of possible legal and policy barriers highlights issues that may impede the use of AAI. Finally, Serpell, McCune, Gee, and Griffin identify key themes, challenges and important considerations related to AAI programs and practices and present a potential research agenda for AAI in special populations.
Despite the long held practice of including animals in therapeutic contexts and the anecdotal reports of this practice frequently presented in the media, the field is still struggling to define itself and gain credibility as a form of complementary therapy. Recent attempts have been made to standardize terminology (International Association of Human-Animal Interaction Organizations [IAHAIO], Citation2013) and practice standards (Fine, Citation2015), but as yet there is no formalized field-wide consensus. A recent example of why strong research is essential in this area is the rule on service dogs published by the US Department of Veterans Affairs (VA), denying financial benefits to support service dogs for those with mental disabilities, such as PTSD and traumatic brain injury (Veterans Affairs Department, Citation2012). The VA cited a lack of research substantiating the efficacy of mental health service dogs as the reason for denying financial support. Until a stronger evidence base is established for the efficacy of AAI, the potential of this practice cannot be fully realized for special populations. This collection of thematic papers aims to provide both a summary of research findings to date and to stimulate new research studies to address identified gaps in the current knowledge base. When these gaps are addressed, the place of AAI within applied developmental science may be more fully realized.
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