Introduction to the A&WMA 2022 critical review: A critical review of circular economy for lithium-ion batteries and photovoltaic modules—status, challenges, and opportunities

Bret A. Schichtel

Eric D. Stevenson

The industrialization of the world has largely followed the linear economic model of “take-make-waste,” i.e., extract natural resources, manufacture and use products, and finally dispose of them as waste. The continued growth in the world’s population and its affluence is straining the availability of natural resources, and the manufacture of goods and their disposal often leads to widespread air, water, and land pollution, as well as biodiversity loss, resulting in unstable ecosystems (WWF, 2014). There is a need to shift to a more sustainable economic system. One framework that is gaining momentum is that of a circular economy (CE) (Geissdoerfer et al., 2017). A CE is based on a looped economy in which products at the end of their intended purpose are incorporated back into the economy or disposed of in a way to store carbon as opposed to simply landfilling. However, it is more than just recycling of goods and has the aspirational goal of creating “an industrial system that is restorative or regenerative by intention and design” (Ellen MacArthur Foundation (EMF) 2013). The WEF (2014) defines it as a system that “replaces the end-of-life concept with restoration, shifts toward the use of renewable energy, eliminates the use of toxic chemicals, which impair reuse and return to the biosphere, and aims for the elimination of waste through the superior design of materials, products, systems and business models.”

A CE is a comprehensive system with 10 strategies based around smarter product development; extended product lifespan; and the recycling and recovery of materials and energy at end of the product’s life. Elements of a CE have successfully been implemented in some industries. For example, in the United States ~99% of used lead-acid batteries are collected and recycled, driven by effective regulations and the public’s desire to avoid lead’s toxicity (EPA 1985). Also, automobiles are regularly repaired, and there is a robust market for used cars, parts, and recycled materials, mostly driven by the value of these products (Aguilar Esteva et al. 2021). However, despite extensive marketing efforts to reduce, reuse, and recycle plastics, the implementation of CE and sustainable processes for plastics have, to date, largely failed, and society now faces the problem of pervasive plastic waste and its contamination of virtually all terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems (Kumar et al. 2021).

Emerging technologies provide the opportunity to apply CE strategies and supporting policies at their onset, thereby minimizing the environmental and societal impacts from the changes in the economy and industries that those technologies can bring. We are in the midst of a dramatic shift in global energy production, from one based on fossil fuels to low carbon and renewable energy generation. Photovoltaics (PV) for electricity generation and lithium-ion batteries (LIB) for electric grid storage and balancing as well as for electric vehicles are two important technologies to enable this shift. The deployment of both technologies is expected to increase by more than an order of magnitude in the next 25 years, raising concerns about material supply, end-of-life management, environmental and societal impacts, and economic costs.

The 52nd Annual A&WMA Critical Review takes an in-depth look at the current status, challenges, and opportunities for implementation of CE strategies to support the widespread adoption of these two technologies. The authors, Drs, Garvin Heath and Dwarakanath Ravikumar and Mss. Brianna Hansen and Elaine Kupets, used a systematic review procedure whereby they obtained over 3000 articles on the subject, passed them through a series of screens, resulting in ~625 articles, and finally classified them by 70 overlapping categories based on CE strategies, material flow through the products’ lifecycles, and more. This process created an extensive categorized publication database that can form the foundation for future research endeavors.

The authors found that for both PV and LIB, the available literature is highly focused on recycling at their end of their life. This research has resulted in recycling methods, but they cannot yet recover all constituent materials nor are they truly economical. Consequently, recycling of PV and LIB has only been deployed to a limited extent, primarily in regions of the world that have developed effective regulatory frameworks to support the recycling efforts. While recycling is a critical process in a CE, other strategies that focus on smarter product development and extending a product’s useful lifespan are preferred, because they retain a greater portion of the products value and generally have greater environmental and economic benefits. Research in non-recycling CE strategies for PV and LIB has increased in recent years, but this is an area that deserves and needs more research and activity.

The authors also found that other nontechnological aspects of a CE, e.g., environmental, societal, and economic influences, as well as policies and regulations, are understudied and underdeveloped. The adoption of CE strategies and their effectiveness are dependent on favorable economics, and policies and regulations play a critical role in developing a favorable marketplace. In addition, quantifying and communicating the promised benefits are important for support of a CE.

The authors finally conclude that we are in the early stages of developing a CE for PV and LIB, and there is still much to be done. However, the increasing awareness; growing body of research; and regular updates to the state of the science provide opportunities for implementing CE strategies, developing course corrections, and helping to fulfill the sustainability promise of a CE for PV and LIB.

A&WMA appreciates the leadership of Dr Heath and Dr. Ravikumar, National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL), Golden, Colorado, in preparing this review with assistance from Ms. Hansen and Ms. Kupets, NREL interns who graduated from the University of Michigan and University of Rochester, respectively. Dr. Garvin Heath is an inaugural Distinguished Member of the Research Staff at NREL, specializing in the analysis of environmental impacts of energy systems: renewable and conventional, electricity, and fuels. He is chair of the State of Colorado’s Air Quality Enterprise Board and is a senior research associate in the Renewable and Sustainable Energy Institute at the University of Colorado. Using the tools of life-cycle assessment, air quality modeling, and sustainability analysis, he has led research that has developed novel methods for quantifying environmental impacts, including circularity, that have been published in leading scientific journals. Dr. Heath also leads the International Energy Agency’s Photovoltaic Power Systems (PVPS) Technology Collaboration Programme Task 12: Sustainability and is on technical committees for developing eco-labels for PV and global standards for ultra-low carbon PV and PV recycling facilities.

Dr. Ravikumar is an NREL scientist specializing in operationalizing CEs for renewable energy infrastructure systems and carbon dioxide through carbon capture and utilization. He has also developed novel recycling approaches for PV and has used an anticipatory approach to advance the practice of life-cycle assessment for emerging technologies. Over the course of his CE research, Dr. Ravikumar has collaborated extensively with diverse stakeholders, including industry, nongovernmental organizations, national labs, and universities.

A&WMA members and interested parties are invited to read, attend, and comment on the 52nd Annual Critical Review livestream event, which will be held as part of A&WMA’s 2022 Annual Conference & Exhibition, on Thursday, June 30, 2022, 8:00 to 10:30 am PDT (www.awma.org/ace2022registration). Following the review presentation will be commentary from a panel of invited experts who will critique the review, address additional issues, and offer alternative perspectives. This year’s invited discussants are Dr. Stephanie L Shaw, Technical Executive at the Electric Power Research Institute, who works with industry on the end-of-life management of solar PV and batteries; Dr. Chih C. Chao, Principal at Cantech Environmental Services, Toronto, whose research interests include issues of sustainability and CE; Mr. Gerald Braun, the founder and director of the Integrated Renewable Energy Systems Network (IRESN), with extensive experience in energy markets, electricity systems, and clean energy supply technologies; and Dr. Brian Tarroja, University of California, Irvine, where he is an Assistant Professional Researcher in the Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, a lecturer in the Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, and manager in the Advanced Power and Energy Program. His research includes the strategies for decarbonizing energy systems. The authors and discussants will also accept and answer comments from the floor and from written submissions to the Critical Review Committee chair. The chair will condense and summarize these points in the October issue of JA&WMA. Members are encouraged to suggest topics and authors for future critical reviews and to volunteer for membership on the Critical Review Committee to assist with the process.

Disclosure statement

The assumptions, findings, conclusions, judgments, and views presented herein are those of the authors and should not be interpreted as necessarily representing National Park Service policies.

Additional information

Notes on contributors

Bret A. Schichtel

Bret A. Schichtel is a physical scientist with the National Park Service Air Resource Division

Eric Stevenson

Eric D. Stevenson is the current Critical Review Committee Chair.