Urban poor, economic opportunities and sustainable development through traditional knowledge and practices

Abstract

The population of a city grows through birth as well as migration. The economy has not been able to provide employment and an income for the vast majority of rural migrants, including the urban poor. Significantly, a large number of urban poor work in the informal sector as they have less skill, less education and less capital. In many developing countries, including India, due to the fast pace of urbanization, many rural areas are gradually becoming part of urban areas, where urban amenities are lacking and open spaces, cultivable lands and water bodies remain, at least in the initial stages of urbanization. Due to growing environmental concerns, there is often a demand to preserve such open spaces to protect the environment. This provides an opportunity for some people to earn a livelihood by following traditional occupations like agriculture and thereby providing fresh vegetables for the urban population. However, these people do not enjoy some of the urban amenities and continue to be connected to the rural world through visits, remittances and social, cultural and economic networks, sometimes recruiting people from their rural areas. Thus, the indigenous, traditional knowledge of cultivation and its practice in urban areas, not only helps a group of people, the poor, to survive in urban situations but it also helps to achieve sustainable development with better environmental conditions.

Keywords:

• ecology
• folk
• migration
• urban agriculture
• urban poor

The urban poor

The urban poor as a community are at the crossroads of two value systems: the folk traditional and the modern. The folk traditional system of values emphasizes social stability, continuity and commitment to normative standards of behaviour. The modern system represents the values of secularism, functional differentiation and innovation. The direction of change is determined by reference models, both traditional and modern, with which the urban poor interact as they seek to make new lives for themselves and for their children. Their success will largely depend on their participation in the common resources and values of the emerging society and culture.

One of the important characteristics of the urban poor is that a large number work in the informal sector where entry is easy, requiring less skill, less education and less capital. Another interesting characteristic is that the urban poor do not constitute a separate world but are linked to the rural world through visits, remittances and social, cultural and economic networks; most importantly, through recruitment of people from rural areas.

Being neglected, on the one hand, and being victims of misguided policies, on the other, the urban poor have so far endured poor health. They bear the stress of migration from rural areas to urban slums, and their experience in the workforce, mainly the informal sector, where they are overworked. Stress induces them to indulge in vices. They are victims of industrial pollution and have significantly higher mortality rates and morbidity prevalence than the general population. With their impaired health, they are in no position to contribute positively to their ecosystem. However, society requires a positive contribution from everyone, and because of this, it is imperative that more and more efforts be directed towards ensuring the well-being of the poor, particularly the urban poor.

People in urban areas are known to be consumers rather than producers. The population of a city grows through birth as well as migration, and migrants account for the significant growth in urban populations. In fact, migration contributes largely to the growth of towns and cities. This migration is either from urban areas or, more frequently, from rural areas.

Rapid growth has certainly added to the problems of the urban population, especially the poor. Slums, squatter camps and other forms of settlements are appearing at a rate faster than households. Urban poverty, scarcity of housing and services for the poor, are considerable. The economy has not been able to provide employment and an income, and the provision of housing and services has been below what is required. It is not merely a question of matching supply with demand, as the vast majority of the urban poor do not have the ability to pay.

Urban agriculture

Urban agriculture is the practice of cultivating, processing and distributing food in or around a village, town or city. It can also involve animal husbandry, aquaculture, agroforestry and horticulture. These activities also occur in peri-urban areas. Nowadays, urban agriculture practised by the urban poor attracts the attention of social scientists. In the midst of concrete jungles, urban agriculture is perceived as a sign of hope, the ability to breath. It has been observed that it is mainly poor farmers from rural areas who have developed green areas in the vicinity of urban areas. Urban agriculture can improve the quality of air in urban areas by increasing the amount of oxygen. Therefore, the importance of urban agriculture cannot be underrated. Urban agriculture can benefit city dwellers by having a soothing effect and energizing human minds, freeing them temporarily from the monotony of urban life. Urban agriculture is also an economic activity, the roots of which lie in rural areas. The present study focuses on this aspect, which has so far been neglected by researchers and anthropologists alike, who have mostly concentrated on the structural aspects of urban life. Enlargement of green urban areas by way of urban agriculture adds to the scenic beauty of a city and at the same time can provide much needed food for farming families; furthermore, urban farmers could supply the markets so that city dwellers can procure fresh vegetables. Thus, urban agriculture can provide employment opportunities for the migrant urban poor.

Urban agriculture can briefly be defined as the growing of plants and the raising of animals within and around cities. The most striking feature of urban agriculture, which distinguishes it from rural agriculture, is that it is integrated into the urban economic and ecological system: urban agriculture is embedded in – and interacts with – the urban ecosystem. Such interactions include: employment of urban residents as labourers for urban agriculture; the adoption of urban waste (organic waste as compost and wastewater for irrigation); the involvement of urban consumers; contribution to the urban food system; impacts on urban ecology (both positive and negative); competition for land destined for other urban functions; conforming to urban policies and plans, etc. Urban agriculture is not some relic of the past destined to disappear (urban agriculture actually increases when a city grows), nor is it a skill brought to cities by rural migrants that will eventually be forgotten over time. It is an integral part of the urban system.

Urban farming is generally practised for income or food, although in some communities its purpose is to enhance recreation and relaxation. Urban agriculture contributes to food availability and safety in two ways: first, it increases the amount of food available to people living in cities and, second, it makes fresh vegetables, fruit and meat products readily available to urban consumers, decreasing the amount of food deserts. A common and efficient form of urban agriculture is the bio-intensive method. Because urban agriculture promotes energy-saving local food production, urban and peri-urban agriculture is generally regarded as sustainable agriculture. Another feature of urban farming, especially in densely populated American cities, is the use of growbags to produce a wide range of crops. Many apartment dwellers with no gardens to speak of, set up these bags on balconies or thin strips of land. Many types of hanging bags are also available, thereby increasing the areas available for planting. The bags themselves are made from a variety of materials, including canvas, weed barrier fabric and polyester, all with semi-porous properties so that the soil can drain adequately. The term “Bagriculture” was coined in 1998 by the Los Angeles animator and amateur archaeologist Rudy Zappa Martinez to describe this phenomenon.

The urban situation in India

Urban India, with its fourth largest population of all nations, faces a serious crisis due to the explosion of its population numbers, poverty, scarcity of housing and space, scarcity of services, pollution, poor health and failing ecosystem. The increased growth rate of the urban population is evident from Table 1. The high growth of the population in the mega cities is the greatest concern for this country, since the share of mega cities, in the context of total urban population, is increasing, which implies an increase in the importance of mega cities and a decrease in the importance of small towns.

Table 1. The growth rate of the urban population in India.

Year	Percentage of urban population (%)
1971	17.60
1981	23.70
1991	25.70
2001	27.90
2011	31.20

Source: Census Survey of India (1971, 1981, 1991, 2001, 2011).

With regard to the four mega cities of India, namely: Chennai, Delhi, Kolkata and Mumbai, approximately 5 million, out of an approximate total of 19 million, live in slums or spontaneous settlements. It is further estimated that about 15–20% of the inhabitants of the remaining 39 cities, each with a population of 300,000 or more, live in similar settlements. The inhabitants of these settlements are now the urbanizing groups, reflecting the process of change in the social structures and economies of the cities. Mega cities like Kolkata, with a population of over 12 million, sustain a very large number of urban poor who live in larger concentrations in urban areas: their overall number in the villages far exceeds those in the cities. These urban poor are pushed rather than pulled into urban areas. This is a common feature of rural urban migration in India. It results in under-employment in rural areas and many migrants’ initial anxiety is often exacerbated by negative experiences of urban employment, overcrowding and economic hardship. If the socio-economic characteristics of the migrant population are examined, broadly two categories can be identified. One, the educated, well-to-do sector of high social standing, forming a sizeable population in the middle classes, the other, the uneducated families mostly of low social standing, who have migrated primarily to seek employment without any education, economic resources or stability. The bulk of the population in the second category either stay in the outskirts of the city or live within the city in slums or on pavements. These people, who are mostly rural migrants, are very limited in their new environment and have to adjust to totally different conditions far from home.

Cross-cultural urban agriculture

For the urban poor, urban agriculture is a rational solution to the economic situation in Third World cities, which cannot otherwise guarantee them sufficient income in order to survive. Not only does urban agriculture enable them to buy less food but they can also boost their family income by selling products. Apart from the economic advantages, it provides a healthy supplement to their diet, which provides food and improves the health standard of this category of city dwellers. Urban farmers hardly ever use expensive products, such an artificial fertilizers and pesticides, and they obtain seed from exchanges with family and friends or by using seed from earlier yields. Manure is something that farmers use regularly and they obtain this from exchanges or by keeping small animals. The hoe is often the only tool they use. The use of products not only influences the price but also affects their knowledge in terms of effectiveness, and depends on availability (in the case of water, whether it is obtainable within a reasonable distance).

Urban agriculture has been studied from various points of view. In several Third World countries, inquiries have been made to establish the general interest in urban agriculture. Some researchers such as Gutman (1987), Sachs and Silk (1991) and Wade (1986) claim that urban agriculture has the same characteristics as other development strategies dealing with self-reliance. The benefits from agricultural activities are easily targeted at urban farmers. Conservation of energy, self-help housing, social services, treatment of waste and the usage of unused resources, are all measures to help promote self-reliance. Urban agriculture is always considered part of subsistence production. This form of production includes: agriculture, the construction and maintenance of houses, the collection of water and firewood, health care, recreation and transport (Evers, 1981; Evers & Korff, 1986). Low-income groups undertake these activities and they are crucial to fulfilling the basic needs and survival of these urban groups. Other researchers endorse Evers’ idea that urban agriculture is mainly a form of production for personal consumption. Generally speaking, urban agriculture is considered to be part of the informal sector because it shares the same characteristics, such as simple access, dependence on indigenous resources, labour intensive, lack of formal training and irregular markets (Freeman, 1991; Sanyal, 1986).

In Latin America, Gutman examined the feasibility of urban agriculture as a strategy for the urban poor to support themselves. This research was part of the United Nations Food–Energy Nexus Programme (Gutman, 1987). Although Gutman believes that urban agriculture could alleviate the problem of food shortage, Yeeung advocates urban agriculture essentially as a food resource for the growing urban population of Asian countries. In Chinese cities and in the town states of Hong Kong and Singapore, urban agriculture has been established on a large systematic scale. In Kathmandu, Nepal, 33% of fruit and vegetable requirements are met by urban agriculture and in Suva, Fiji, 50% of the ground is set aside for agricultural activities (Wade, 1986).

For lower income groups, urban agriculture is a rational solution to the economic situation in Third World cities that cannot guarantee them enough income to survive. The economic advantages of food production are felt directly by the people who produce it. Not only does it enable them to buy less food but it also boosts their family income through the selling of products. Apart from the economic advantages, it provides a healthy supplement to their diet, which in turn raises the food and health standards of the city dwellers (Freeman, 1991; Rakodi, 1997; Wade, 1986).

Urban agriculture appears to be a vital source of fresh vegetables and adds essential proteins, calories, vitamins and minerals to the diets of city dwellers, especially to those of the urban poor who would otherwise not have access to adequate food.

From an ecological point of view, urban agriculture has several advantages because fallow land is transformed into green areas. Moreover, one should consider the role of green areas in the improvement of soil conditions and urban hydrological systems, improved air circulation, temperature regulation, degree of humidity, and filtration and absorption of dust and noise. Ground water pollution is diminished by urban agriculture because of the use of the land, which would otherwise be turned into garbage dumps. Amounts of waste can be decreased by composting domestic waste and using compost as manure on the fields (Sachs & Silk, 1991).

The state of agriculture in Third World cities should be improved and treated as a serious development goal. Agriculture in cities can also change people's attitudes to the environment because urban farmers are directly dependent on their surroundings. For them, environmental degradation means a decrease in production and therefore less food, and this heightens the urban population's awareness about protecting the environment.

In most Third World countries, including India, there is serious ecological degradation in the urban areas as a result of fast/unplanned urban growth. To provide accommodation and other facilities, various construction works are carried out on relatively open spaces or water-covered land. The surrounding areas of many cities are gradually being absorbed into the main part of the cities. Thus, the ecology is greatly affected.

How will the inhabitants of South Asian cities be fed? This is an important question demanding a response in light of the rapidly growing urban population of India. Urban and peri-urban agriculture (UPA) is one set of activities resulting in greater food production and improved livelihoods for urbanites and the enhanced environmental quality of cities. A report by Dr Yasmeen (2001) provides an overview of existing UPA resources and activities in India, with particular focus on Delhi and Bangalore, though with many examples from the other Indian cities as well.

In Urban Agriculture in Third World Cities, Magriet Veenma (1995) attempts to steer the attention of policymakers and social scientists to urban agriculture, as an important contribution to the sustainable development of Third World cities. Her book aims to present an overview of urban agriculture endeavouring to redress the inferior position that it still occupies in urban studies. As Veenma (1995) affirmed, the produce of urban agriculture can contribute to satisfying the basic needs of city dwellers as well as providing ecological advantages to the urban environment.

A study by Dr Sumita Chaudhuri (2003) on the marginalized urban poor is also interesting in this context as it focuses on their struggle for existence in extreme conditions of economic deprivation.

Professor P. J. M. Nas and M. Veenma stated in Towards Sustainable Cities that urban greenery can support sustainable urban development especially in the Third World countries since most green areas of cities consist of farmland cultivated by city dwellers which contribute to satisfying their basic needs, as well as providing ecological advantages for the urban environment and the social activities of the inhabitants.

The conceptual framework

Various conceptual frameworks have included urban agriculture and urban ecology. While urban ecology refers to the relationship between man and the environment in an urban context, urban agriculture refers specifically to horticulture or the cultivation of food products in the vicinity of urban areas, which can assist poorer people with a rural background to practice this type of economy. Urban agriculture has been studied from various points of view. Some researchers (Gutman, 1987; Sachs, 1986; Wade, 1986) have claimed that urban agriculture has the same characteristics as other development strategies dealing with self-reliance. Urban agriculture is based on local initiatives and there is a direct relationship between activities, output and the needs of the local population. Agricultural activities limit the likelihood of supplying other urban groups – with greater economic and social power – with benefits originally intended for urban farmers. Conservation of energy, self-help housing, social services, treatment of waste and usage of unused resources, are all measures to help promote self-reliance.

Urban agriculture is considered part of subsistence production. This form of production includes agriculture, the construction and maintenance of houses, the collection of water and firewood, health care, recreation and transport (Evers, 1981; Evers & Korff, 1986). It is thought that urban agriculture can play a crucial role in the production of food for Third World cities (Rogerson, 1992) with regard to the urban poor and can provide better environmental conditions.

Major issues

1. Environmental hazards impacting on the urban poor need to be fully understood. Chronic poisoning severely affects the health of this malnourished and physically overworked population.

2. Instead of regarding the urban poor as a liability for the city authorities, they should be regarded as an asset. They bring customs and practices from the rural areas (agriculture, utilizing dung for fuel and fertilizer) which can improve the city and help to keep it clean.

3. A common feature of city expansion is the rapid growth of hutment colonies in the suburbs or outskirts of the city. This is partly because of increased occupation and land value in the central districts of the city, which preclude the construction of new settlements in these areas and force many residents of older slums to move elsewhere. Therefore, the urban poor could stay in the periphery of the cities where they could be allotted land for cultivation.

4. For women, urban agriculture is a particularly important resource to boost the family's food production and consumption. Agricultural activities also offer a way to gain access to the commercial urban market.

5. It has been noted that the ecology of the settlement pattern of the poor in all of the large cities is closely related to the economic function of the city. In this context, if the poor people of mega cities were allowed to stay and grow vegetables in the outskirts of the city, they could provide fresh vegetables for themselves and also sell them in the nearby city markets.

Several researchers have suggested that urban agriculture is a rural heritage that tends to lose importance the longer people stay in cities. Moreover, they believe that recent migrants from the countryside are not yet socially, culturally or economically integrated into the urban environment. Often migrants are illiterate, without much capital and with a limited network of family relations. Urban agriculture can provide them with the opportunity to grow their own food and improve their socio-economic condition. Urban farmers cultivate many crops on small plots of land. Several studies have shown that within the household it is the woman who is mainly responsible for these activities. Psychologically, it gives women self-confidence and feelings of independence when they can support their own family and save some money. For these women, agriculture is not just a hobby or a way of passing the time, it is a sheer necessity. Most people who work on farmland in the periphery of the city, have lived there all their lives and have been involuntarily incorporated into the urban area, absorbed by the growth of the city. They can continue to do what they have always done. On a small scale, these farmers are involved in commercial agriculture. They produce cash crops, flowers, food plant nurseries and breed cattle. These farmlands are mostly cultivated by the urban poor. The ground is only productive in the rainy season because of the lack of water in the dry season.

To sum up, therefore, the major issues are the following:

1. Natural and physical environmental conditions ought to be incorporated into urban slum developments. Poor settlements are found on the most environmentally vulnerable low-lying areas.

2. Poor people in mega cities like Kolkata provide cheap labour for services and industry. However, by doing so, they are not receiving any tangible benefits.

3. The urban poor have a higher tolerance to pollution and this tolerance is being exploited by polluters.

4. Urban agriculture is a rural heritage, which becomes less important the longer people live in cities. It has been observed that recent migrants from the countryside are not yet socially, culturally or economically integrated into the urban environment. Often they are less educated, less skilled and without much capital, with a limited network of family relations. Given the opportunity to cultivate their own food, they could improve their circumstances.

5. From an ecological point of view, one of the advantages of urban agriculture is that it transforms fallow land into green areas.

6. In several cities, experiments have begun in composting organic waste. In Kolkata, vegetables are grown on high-impact polystyrene (HIPS) trash, consisting mainly of organic waste, dust and ashes, collected by thousands of garbage pickers.

7. A common feature of city expansion is the rapid growth of hutment colonies in the suburbs or outskirts of the city. This is because of increased occupation and land value in the central districts of the city, which preclude the construction of new settlements in these areas and force many residents of older slums to move elsewhere.

8. Another important approach is the acceptance of the basic slum settlement ecology, concentrating more on sites and services or environmental improvement schemes. These are more promising because they do not interfere with the economic and social functions of the slum. Moreover, they can be carried out at a cost that is within the reach of current developmental resources, and would not involve unreasonable subsidies; poor people can pay over the long term.

9. Thus, the application of indigenous, traditional knowledge of cultivation cannot only help the poor to survive in an urban situation, but can also help to achieve sustainable development and a better environment.

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author.