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Acknowledgement
I would like to thank Professor Rakhmiel Peltz for his help in the preparation of this essay.
Notes
1. See Shmeruk, “Yiddish Literature,” 236; Schneer, Yiddish and the Creation of Soviet Jewish Culture, 14–29.
2. On the development of post‐revolutionary Soviet literature, see Dobrenko, Formovka sovetskogo pisatelia. The English version is The Making of the State Writer.
3. On Futurism, see Perloff, The Futurist Moment. On the relationship between Lenin and the Futurist movement, see Dobrenko, Making, 313.
4. Ermolaev, Soviet Literary Theories, 10–19. See also Dobrenko, Making, 102–15.
5. On the “Octoberist” or “Onguardist” group, see Ermolaev, Soviet Literary Theories, 27–54.
6. Erlich, “Social and Aesthetic Criteria in Soviet Russian Criticism,” 399–400.
7. On the NEP period in the Soviet Union, see Suny, The Soviet Experiment, 170–83.
8. On the Soviet treatment of national minorities, see Huttenbach, Soviet Nationality Policies.
9. On the influence of the NEP on Soviet literature, see Ermolaev, Soviet Literary Theories, 22–34.
10. Simmons, “Review,” 454.
11. Shmeruk, “Yiddish Literature, 237.
12. On the role of the Fellow Travelers in the Soviet Union, see Dobrenko, Making, 178–83; Ermolaev, Soviet Literary Theories, 36–38, 116–33.
13. Hankin, “Main Premises,” 439.
14. Erlich, “Social and Aesthetic Criteria,” 406.
15. Ibid.
16. On the Yiddish Fellow Travelers, see Schneer, Yiddish, 135–37.
17. Kiev, 1918–20.
18. On this school of Yiddish literature, see Wolitz, “The Kiev‐Grupe.”
19. On the emergence of this publication, see Schneer, “The History of ‘The Truth,’” 129–43.
20. Shmeruk, “Yiddish Literature,” 241. On the central role of Litvakov in Soviet Yiddish literature, see Krutikov, “Soviet Literary Theory,” 226–41. On Litvakov and his relationship to the Yiddish language, see Estraikh, Soviet Yiddish, 39–40, 45–47. See also Estraikh, “Yiddish Literary Life,” 44–52.
21. Shmeruk, “Yiddish Literature,” 246.
22. Ibid.
23. It is significant to note that the Soviet Yiddish critic I.M. Nusinov, widely considered the main theoretician of proletarian literature, published his major work in 1932. See his Problemen fun der proletarisher literatur.
24. For a schematic survey on the critical reception of American Sweatshop poetry in Soviet Yiddish criticism, with a particular focus on the critique and publication of the works of Dovid Edelshtat, see Pomerants, “Politishe kritik,” 302–30.
25. Di varheyt was founded in March 1918 in Petrograd as the “Organ of the S.D. Bolsheviks and Left Socialist‐Revolutionaries.” The publication moved in May 1918 to Moscow and in August of the same year its title was changed to Der emes. This newly named publication was the first daily Communist newspaper in Yiddish in post‐revolutionary Russia. This newspaper, whose title maintained its original, Hebrew spelling, lasted until February 1919. On November 7, 1920, a new daily, which would basically serve as the Yiddish counterpart to the Russian Pravda, was established in Moscow. This publication was also called Der emes, but its title was spelled phonetically. This phonetic, non‐traditional spelling represented, among other things, a break with tradition. For a survey and analysis of Soviet Yiddish orthography, particularly in relation to the Hebrew element of Yiddish, see Peltz, “Dehebraization Controversy,” pp.125–50. See also Estraikh, Soviet Yiddish, 45–47. For bibliographical information on Soviet Yiddish publications in the interwar period see Shmeruk, Pirsumim yehudiim bevrit hamoatsot.
26. Bovshover, Geklibene lider.
27. Nakhman, “Yoysef Bovshovers Geklibene lider,” 36.
28. Ibid., 37.
29. This article was reprinted in the second volume of Litvakov’s collection of essays entitled In umru. This is the source from which I have quoted in this essay.
30. Litvakov, In umru, 7. It is significant to note that Litvakov was not a pure Marxist‐Leninist, but rather a critic and editor who attempted to create a unique type of Soviet Yiddish literature. See Krutikov, “Soviet Literary Theory;” Schneer, “The History of ‘The Truth,’” 132–34, 139–40.
31. On Lenin’s view of proletarian culture, see Dobrenko, Making, 79–81; Ermolaev, Soviet Literary Theories, 13–19.
32. Litvakov, In umru, 9.
33. Ibid.
34. On this movement, see Fitzpatrick, Cultural Revolution in Russia. See also Patrikeef, “Stalinism,” 36–37; Widdis, “To Explore or Conquer?” 219–40. On the effects of the Cultural Revolution on the eastern Soviet republics, see Martin, Affirmative Action Empire, 154–77. On the impact of the Cultural Revolution on Soviet literature, see Ermolaev, Soviet Literary Theories, 59–70, 124–28. On the influence of the Cultural Revolution on Yiddish literature in the Soviet Union, see Schneer, Yiddish, 168–72.
35. Reprinted in his book In shturem, 41–46.
36. Ibid., 43. Badkhones was a type of poetry that originated with the oral rhymes of wedding jesters. These were Yiddish poems, often traditional style ballads that were set to music and performed at weddings. Eventually, traveling musicians visited different towns and cities in the Jewish Pale of Settlement in the Russian empire and performed these compositions for crowds. Some of the more famous performers include Di Broder Zinger and Mikhl Gordon. This form of poetry was perceived by literary critics as pre‐modern, and therefore the word badkhones often takes on pejorative connotations.
37. Vevyorke, In shturem, 44.
38. Ibid., 46.
39. Vevyorke, Reviziye (Kharkov and Kiev: Melukhe‐Farlag “Literatur un Kunst,” 1931).
40. Vevyorke, “Reviziye,” Prolit (Kharkov) 2 (May 1928): 27–36. Quoted in Pomerants, “Politishe kritik,” 309–10.
41. This essay is dated “Kiev, Nov. 1931,” in Viner and Gurshteyn Problemes fun kritik, 131–75. An abbreviated version of this essay, dated April 26, 1932, was published in the Minsk literary journal Shtern 4–5 (April–May 1932): 120–43.
42. Viner, “Tsu der problem fun literarisher yerushe,” 132.
43. “Undzer yikhes” first appeared in three installments in Shtern 4 (April 1930): 80–90; 5–6 (May–June 1930): 132–39; 7–8 (July–August 1930): 76–80. These three articles were collected the following year and published and elaborated upon as a chapter in Vevyorke’s book Reviziye: “Undzer yikhes” (97–168). I have quoted from this later, expanded text.
44. Kurland, Di ershte yidishe arbeter‐dikhter.
45. Ibid., 18.
46. Feffer and Finenberg, Vinchevsky. The section of Bovshover’s poetry in this collection is a reprint of the collection of Bovshover’s poetry, Lider.
47. Erik, “Vegn dem tekst fun undzere proletarishe shrayber,” 123–32.
48. Kurland, “Vegn a nakhlesiker verk,” 203–13.
49. Ibid., 205.
50. Bronshteyn, “Der stiln‐kamf inem periyod fun militerishn komunism,” 7–73. This essay is a more concise argument presented under the same title in four articles in the Kharkov journal Prolit, November–December 1929, 62–87; February 1930, 26–77; March–April 1930, 108–22; May 1930, 66–82. I have quoted from the book version.
51. Bronshteyn, Atake, 20.
52. Ibid., 21.
53. Reminik, “Tsu der frage vegn di onheybn fun der yidisher sovetisher literatur,” 132–40.
54. Ibid., 40.
55. “Vegn di ershte proletarishe dikhter.” In Litvakov, Af tsvey frontn, 173.
56. This term was coined by the historian Nicholas Timasheff. See his The Great Retreat.
57. On the effect of the 1932 resolution on the RAPP, see Dobrenko, Making, 367–89.
58. Hankin, “Main Premises,” 442.
59. Erlich, “Social and Aesthetic Criteria,” 412.
60. Ibid., 413.
61. On the theories and development of Socialist Realism in the USSR, see Ermolaev, Soviet Literary Theories, 139–203.
62. This change in opinion vis‐à‐vis Vinchevsky is especially significant in light of the fact that, among Soviet Yiddish critics and writers, he was the most celebrated of all American Yiddish poets. On Vinchevsky’s triumphal reception during his visit to the USSR in 1924, see Soyer, “Back to the Future,” 135–38. On the subject of American‐Yiddish figures visiting the Soviet Union, see Soyer, “Abraham Cahan’s Travels,” 56–79.
63. “Vegn Edelshtat’s publisistik,” Visnshaft un revolutsiye 3–4 (July–December 1934): 147–59.
64. Ibid., 159.
65. Kurland, “Tsu der problem vegn di ershte yidishe proletarishe dikhter,” 150–83.
66. Ibid., 183.
67. Marmor, “Morris Rosenfeld’s satirishe lider kegn der geler prese in Amerike,” 3–40. It is significant to note that Marmor’s evaluation of Sweatshop poetry helped create an intellectual link between Soviet and American Communists.