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Abstract
The Japanese government provided various political opportunities for non‐governmental groups and individuals in Japan to ‘jointly propose’ policy on education and sustainable development at the World Summit on Sustainable Development, Johannesburg, 2002. These opportunities resulted in the emergence of the Japanese education for sustainable development (ESD) movement, and the crystallisation of a broader proposal that led to the initiation of the UN Decade of ESD (2005–2014). In this paper, we trace the history of these two outcomes, arguing that the opportunities, developed through the coordination of non‐governmental groups by government, took place within, rather than broadened or confronted, the government’s scope of interests. While the paper illustrates how the government’s continued support was crucial to the development of the ESD movement and the UN Decade, and the movement has met with considerable achievements thus far (via its collective challenges to conventional education in a sustainability context in Japan), we argue that recognition of the political opportunity structures that affect the movement’s further development remains crucial. In particular, we argue for close attention to the significance of a corporatist framing of this emerging civil society movement in Japan by the national government, and call for further political and historical analysis of ESD movements and their relations with government, around the world.
Acknowledgements
The authors wish to thank the anonymous referees for their valuable comments. Also the authors are grateful to all the interviewees and colleagues for their support in their research.
Notes
1. While the proposal was made officially by the Japanese government, the government was keen to show that it was made jointly with NGOs, as evidenced by the then Japanese Prime Minister’s speech at the Summit. He said: ‘My government, together with Japanese non‐governmental organisations, has proposed that the United Nations declare a “Decade of Education for Sustainable Development”’ (http://www.mofa.go.jp/policy/environment/wssd/2002/kinitiative2.html).
2. The meeting minutes and the record of email communications of the sub‐committee provided by a former member of the sub‐committee (unpublished).
3. The Ministry’s position can be seen in its statements at several open meetings such as the one on 21 February 2002 (see Itoh and Kihara Citation2002) and the one on 12 April 2002 (see Itoh Citation2002).
4. The professor’s comment is included in the minutes of the environmental education sub‐committee meeting on 7 August 2002 (unpublished).
5. The Ministry of Foreign Affairs proposed NGOs to hold these side events, and the Ministry offered NGOs related logistic support. See the minutes of the ninth Open Meeting (Itoh Citation2002).
6. In terms of financial contributions, around one‐fifth of the budget of the secretariat, plus the salary of one of its staff members, was provided by the members.
7. During the Prep‐Com 4, the Japanese proposal to mention the Decade in the Chairperson’s report encountered objections from some national representatives, as they were sceptical of the effectiveness of such international initiatives. The Japanese government representatives eventually managed to harness their cooperation by ascertaining the strength of their commitment to the Decade, including the likelihood of financial support.
8. The Institute of Advanced Studies of United Nations University (UNU‐IAS) in Yokohama, Japan, has been acting as the service centre of Regional Centres of Expertise (RCE) since 2006. This RCE programme can be regarded as another initiative by the Ministry of the Environment because this was started by the officials dispatched to UNU‐IAS from the Ministry, and the Ministry’s financial contribution to UNU‐IAS is also significant. Fifty‐five RCEs had been acknowledged by the end of March 2008, six of which are in Japan.
9. This can also be seen from the exclusion of the religious group from the mainstream. The EPO director said that the Ministry was being careful of the group becoming ‘visible’ to the public, for political reasons (interview, 15 March 2008).
10. For the Ministry’s initiatives, see http://www.mext.go.jp/a_menu/kokusai/jizoku/index.htm. Information about the Ministry’s main funding schemes for ESD at higher education institutes can be found at http://www.mext.go.jp/a_menu/koutou/kaikaku/needs.htm and http://www.mext.go.jp/a_menu/kagaku/chousei/.