Exiles' strategies for lobbying in international organisations: Eastern European participation in the Nouvelles Équipes Internationales

Abstract

European and international organisations after the Second World War united not only Western European politicians but also Eastern European exiles. The latter are often represented one‐sidedly: either as powerless members or as important trailblazers of future European unity. This article tries to analyse their role more systematically by means of the case of the Nouvelles Équipes Internationales, the Christian Democratic ‘International’. It states that exiles could sometimes exert influence on congress resolutions and opinion making, but they remained very dependent on the Western agenda and in fact they carried coals to Newcastle, as Christian Democracy presented itself as the opposite of communism. Moreover, it shows that most exiles very rarely expressed their disappointment concerning the limited efficiency of their actions, and in fact contented themselves with their recognition and presence. As a consequence, many possibilities for exile action were missed, as can be illustrated by exiles who aimed at more than the recognition of their legitimacy.

Notes

T. Grosbois, ‘L’action de Józef Retinger en faveur de l'idée européenne 1940–46', Revue européenne d'Histoire, 6/1 (1999), pp. 59–82.

Good introductions, with equally historiographical surveys of the research on Eastern European exiles, are given in the topical issue of The Polish Review, 47 (2002), pp. 317–43 (by Piotr Wandycz on the Poles, István Deák on the far less studied Hungarians, and Igor Lukes on Czechs and Slovakians). However, some basic works are not mentioned, such as Z. Jirásek & M. Trapl, Exilová politika w letech 1948–1956, Olomouc, 1996. Another outstanding introduction (though based on non‐Slavic literature and sources only and therefore sometimes having untenable positions, and moreover not treating lobbying activities in international organisations) is S. Dufoix, Politiques d'exil. Hongrois, Polonais et Tchécoslovaques en France après 1945, Paris, 2002.

S. Delureanu, ‘Les exilés de l’Europe centrale et orientale dans le mouvement européen d'inspiration chrétienne 1947–1965', in M. Gehler, W. Kaiser & H. Wohnout, eds, Christdemokratie in Europa im 20. Jahrhundert–Christian Democracy in 20th Century Europe–La Démocratie Chrétienne en Europe au XXe siècle, Wien, 2001, pp. 720–36, quotes on pp. 720 and 725. Examples of studies concerning exiles' activities in Christian Democratic international organisations, written by former protagonists, are: S.M. Gebhardt, ‘Mie¸dzynarodowe organizacje chrześcijańsko‐demokratyczne’, in T. Piesakowski, ed., Akcja niepodległościowa na terenie międzynarodowym 1945–1990. Materiały do dziejów uchodźstwa IV, Londyn, 1999, pp. 114–39 and J. Zabłocki, Chrześcijańska demokracja w kraju i na emigracji 1947–1970, Lublin, 1999.

The classical works on the NEI are: R. Papini, The Christian Democrat International, Lanham, 1997 (first published in Italian in 1986) and P. Chenaux, Une Europe vaticane? Entre le plan Marshall et les traités de Rome, Brussel, 1990 (by the same author also: P. Chenaux, ‘Les démocrates‐chrétiens au niveau de l’Union Européenne', in E. Lamberts, ed., Christian Democracy in the European Union (1945–1995). Proceedings of the Leuven Colloquium, 15–18 November 1995, Leuven, 1997, pp. 449–58). New titles include: G. Kwanten, August‐Edmond De Schryver 1898–1991. Politieke biografie van een gentleman‐staatsman, Leuven, 2001, pp. 478–93 and P. Van Kemseke, Vistas vol verleden. De ontdekking van de derde‐wereld in het socialistische en christen‐democratisch transnationalisme 1940–1965, unpublished dissertation, Leuven, 2002.

The entry of Latvia, Ukraine and Catalonia was discussed at several meetings (ADS [De Schryver Archives] 7.2.5.1, 7.2.5.4 and 7.2.5.7: EC [executive committee] 1–2.7.1950, DC [directive committee] 14.11.1953 and 6.10.1956). See also: Delureanu, ‘Les exilés’, pp. 723–24.

ADS 7.2.5./1, /8 and /4 (EC 10–11.2.1950, DC 6.7.1957 and EC 31.1.1953).

Interview with F. Gałązka (Brussels, February 2002); Droga Ruchu Chrześcijańskiego Społecznego, 1/2 (7) (10–11.1947), 2.

S. Delureanu, ‘Les exilés’, pp. 727–29; P. Van Kemseke, Vistas, 368 ff.; J. Zabłocki, Chrześcijańska, pp. 81–82; R. Papini, The Christian Democrat International, pp. 76–85. The CDUCE moved its seat to Paris in 1957 and to Rome in 1962. Idem, p. 177.

Consequently, it was the wing of the SP that had returned to Poland that was represented in the NEI, and not the one that had remained in exile. The latter sent Stanisław Sopicki to the second congress of the NEI in Luxemburg in the beginning of 1948, but was overshadowed by its opponents and disappears from later sources. Letter from the Polish Foreign Ministry to consul Edward Przesmycki in Brussels, London, 27.1.1948, in PISM [Polish Institute and Sikorski Museum, London], A.11.E 717 [Archives of the Polish Foreign Ministry in exile]; Z. Ossowski, ‘Chrześcijańska Demokracja’, in Z. Tkocz, ed., Chrześcijańska myśl społeczna na emigracji, Londyn–Lublin, 1991, p. 22 and J. Zabłocki, Chrześcijańska, pp. 67–68 and 83–87. I wrote an article about Glaser, which will be published in 2005: I. Goddeeris, ‘Stefan Glaser: collaborator in European umbrella organisations’, in M. Dumoulin & I. Goddeeris, eds, Vers l'Europe par la Belgique? L'exil polonais et l'intégration européenne—Towards Europe via Belgium? Polish exiles and the European integration, Louvain‐la‐Neuve, foirthcoming.

Regarding Sieniewicz and the CDUCE, see especially ADS, 7.2.11 (including a leaflet of the CDUCE from 1952, an unpublished history of the CDUCE from 1955 or later, and many letters between Sieniewicz and De Schryver. On the representation of the NEI by Sieniewicz and Eustachiewicz, see ADS 7.2.5./4 (DC 21.1.1953, annex 2) and 7.2.5./6 (DC 2.7.1955). Regarding Sieniewicz's financial aid, see: ADS 7.2.5./8 (DC 16.11.1957).

ADS 7.2.4.6./2 (rapport Cioranesco, p. 19).

V. Dujardin & M. Dumoulin, Paul van Zeeland 1893–1973, Bruxelles, 1997, pp. 221–22.

ADS 7.2.4.10, including the report of Van Zeeland, some issues of Die Warte (with the complete texts of all interventions) and of the CDUCE periodical Christian Democratic Review (6/25–26 (6–7.1956)). See also P. Chenaux, Une Europe vaticane?, pp. 267–68.

ADS 7.2.4.11./1.

ADS 7.2.4.4, 7.2.4.6./2 and 7.2.11./1

ADS 7.2.5./1–10, passim.

ADS 7.2.5./3 (EC 6.12.1952) and 7.2.5./4 (DC 14.11.1953).

Luxemburger Wort, 31.5.1956 (ADS 7.2.4.10).

Files about this conference in ADS 7.2.6.1.3 and PISM K.252 [Archives Stefan Glaser], 9. See also P. Chenaux, Une Europe vaticane?, pp. 267–68.

ADS 7.2.4.4. (rapport politique de Benvenuti).

See, among others, P. Chenaux, ‘Les démocrates‐chrétiens’, p. 450; G. Kwanten, August‐Edmond, p. 482.

La Libre Belgique, 1.5.1957 (ADS 7.2.4.11./2).

R. Papini, The Christian Democrat International, p. 80.

ADS 7.2.5./7 (DC 6.10.1956) and ADS 7.2.5./8 (DC 2.2.1957).

Y. Shain, The Frontier of Loyalty: Political Exiles in the Age of the Nation‐State, Middletown, 1989, p. 111.

P. Chenaux, Une Europe vaticane, pp. 149–50. A good survey of opinions on the importance of the NEI is to be found in G. Kwanten, August‐Edmond De Schryver, p. 484, note 353.

W. Kaiser, ‘Deutschland exkulpieren und Europa aufbauen. Parteienkooperation der europäischen Christdemokraten in den Nouvelles Équipes Internationales’, in M. Gehler, W. Kaiser & H. Wohnout, eds, Christdemokratie in Europa im 20. Jahrhundert—Christian Democracy in 20th Century Europe—La Démocratie Chrétienne en Europe au XXe siècle, Wien, 2001, pp. 706–7; M. Gehler, ‘Begegnungsort des Kalten Krieges. Der “Genfer Kreis” und die geheime Absprachen westeuropäischer Christdemokraten 1947–1955’, in id., pp. 642–94.

ADS 7.2.5./5 (DC 11.9.1954), /8 (DC 6.7.1957), /9 (DC 13.12.1958), /10 (DC 13.2.1959 pp. 13–14).

P. Machcewicz, Emigracja w polityce międzynarodowej. Druga Wielka Emigracja 1945–1990. II, Warszawa, 1999, pp. 99–100 and J. Zabłocki, Chrześcijańska, pp. 96–97.

S. Gebhardt, ‘Mie¸dzynarodowe’, p. 123.

J.A. Marcum, ‘The Exile Condition and Revolutionary Effectiveness: Southern African Liberation Movements’, in C.P. Potholm and R. Dale, eds, Southern Africa in Perspective, New York, 1972, p. 264.

J. Zabłocki, Chrześcijańska, p. 98.

Die Warte, 27.6.1956 (ADS 7.2.4.10).

ADS 7.2.4.11./1, pp. 154–55.

ADS 7.2.6.6; see also ADS 7.2.5./6 (DC 2.4 and 2.7.1955), 7.2.5./9 and 7.2.4.12.

ADS 7.2.4.13, pp. 59–63, 80–85 and 163–67.

ADS 7.2.4.15, p. 44.

ADS 7.2.4.7–9.

ADS 7.2.4.12–16 and 7.3.2.1–2.

ADS 7.2.4.13 (pp. 26–28, 101–04 and 82).

Die Warte, 9/28 (361) (11.7.1956) (ADS 7.2.4.10).

La Libre Belgique, 27.5.1956 and Christian Democratic Review, 6/25–26 (85–86) (6–7.1956), p. 5 (ADS 7.2.4.10).

Nouvel Horizon, 3/22 (6.1957), p. 4 (ADS 7.2.4.11).

Christian Democratic News Service, 3/15–16 (54–55) (28.9.1953), 15 (ADS 7.2.4.7).

Nouvel Horizon, Nouvelle série, 2 (10.1955), p. 9 (ADS 7.2.4.9).

Christian Democratic Review, 7/34 (93) (5–6.1957), p. 10 ff. (ADS 7.2.4.11./1).

ADS 7.5.2; Christian Democratic Review, 6/30 (89) (12.1956), p. 16 ff. (ADS 7.5.1); ADS 7.2.5./4 (annex 2 to a report of the EC 31.1.1952), ADS 7.2.5./7 (DC 28.1.1956); ADS 7.2.11./1 (New York, 23.2.1955); ADS 7.2.4.10; ADS 7.5.1. See also J. Zabłocki, Chrześcijańska, pp. 101–02; See also P. Chenaux, Une Europe vaticane?, 271 ff. and especially P. Van Kemseke, Vistas, pp. 368 ff. and 390 ff.

J. Zabłocki, Chrześcijańska, passim (93, 174, 182–189 ff.).

PISM, KOL 252, 14. Gebhardt (‘Międzynarodowe’, 136) wrote that in the 1950s, Glaser sent medicines to Poland with the help of Swiss Christian Democrats and the members of the NEI cultural commission he chaired, but I did not find any confirmation in the sources.

L'avenir démocratique de l'Europe (blz. 93 e.v.) in KADOC, De Schryver, 7.3.2.1.

R. Papini, The Christian Democrat International, 85.

Sieniewicz stressed that ‘le problème ne consiste pas dans l’encouragement de ces peuples [in the Eastern bloc] dans leur sentiments'. On the other side, he too returned to the past and ‘la politique fatale des alliés pendant la dernière guerre mondiale’ and he did not refer to the presence of Jerzy Braun.

This not illogical thesis still needs to be examined more thoroughly, but at least the archives of De Schryver can confirm it. See for instance: Panorama démocrate chrétien, 6/4 (10–12.1973) (ADS 7.3.2.3) and UMDC—informations (ADS 7.3.2.5).

P. Pasture, ‘Jan Kułakowski as a European Christian Trade Union Leader’, in M. Dumoulin & I. Goddeeris eds, Vers l'Europe par la Belgique? L'exil polonais et l'intégration européenne—Towards Europe via Belgium? Polish exiles and the European integration, Louvain‐la‐Neuve, forthcoming.

Zjednoczenie, 3/3 (13) (3–5.1951) and 2–3/8–1 (10–11) (12.1950 – 1.1951).

ADS 7.2.4.9.

S. Gebhardt, ‘Międzynarodowe’, especially pp. 126 ff. and his biography on pp. 749–50).

See especially Zjednoczenie, and also ASD 7.2.4.5 ff., ASD 7.2.5./9 (DC 15.2.1958); Nouvel Horizon (2/17–18 (2.1957)) (ADS 7.2.11./2); J. Zabłocki, Chrześcijańska, p. 70.