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Abstract
This article aims to reveal the changing semantics of violence in the three West European societies most affected by ‘terrorism’ from the late 1960s to the early 1980s: Italy, France and Germany. Specifically, this article traces the emergence, the trajectory and the impact of a coding of debates concerning political legitimacy during this period, which revolved primarily along the binary opposition of violence and non-violence. Its focus is on the dialectic interaction between these interpretive schemes and the occurrence of physical violence. The discourses on violence and non-violence made some forms of actions possible and legitimate. Conversely, violent and non-violent collective action transformed the meaning and structure of the discussions. This article argues that, despite all the bloodshed, this period saw the beginnings of an era of non-violence in the political cultures of the three countries.
Notes
[1] CitationParker, “31 terrorist blasts in a week”.
[2] On the methodological assumptions cf. CitationTarrow, Power in Movement, 109–12.
[3] On the relationship between events and frames cf. CitationGamson, “The Social Psychology of Collective Action”, 70.
[4] Biedenkopf, “Politik und Sprache [1973]”, 189–97. For an Italian perspective cf. CitationRigotti, Metafore della politica. On a theoretical level cf. CitationLakoff and Johnson, Metaphors we live by.
[5] Cf. CitationWeinhauer, “Terrorismus in der Bundesrepublik der Siebzigerjahre”, esp. 233–34.
[6] CitationFritzsche, “Terrorism in the Federal Republic of Germany and Italy: Legacy of the '68 Movement or ‘Burden of Fascism’?” and CitationBecker, Hitler's Children; cf., however, Citationdella Porta, Social Movements, Political Violence, and the State and now: CitationTolomelli, Terrorismo e società.
[7] CitationMusolff, Krieg gegen die Öffentlichkeit. Terrorismus und politischer Sprachgebrauch.
[8] Cf. the suggestions in CitationBonacker, “Zuschreibungen der Gewalt. Zur Sinnförmigkeit interaktiver, organisierter und gesellschaftlicher Gewalt”.
[9] Cf. CitationTreiber, “Die gesellschaftliche Auseinandersetzung mit dem Terrorismus: Die Inszenierung ‘symbolischer Kreuzzüge’ zur Darstellung von Bedrohungen der normativen Ordnung von Gesellschaft und Staat”, 323–24.
[10] Cf. CitationLuhmann, Die Politik der Gesellschaft, 358–59; CitationBaecker, “Gewalt im System”.
[11] CitationKershaw, “War and Political Violence in Twentieth-Century Europe”, 122; CitationLaqueur, The Age of Terrorism.
[12] Cf. CitationSchmid and de Graaf, Violence as Communication. Insurgent Terrorism and the Western News Media; CitationMünkler, “Guerillakrieg und Terrorismus”, 317–20.
[13] CitationDaase, Christopher. “Die RAF und der internationale Terrorismus. Zur transnationalen Kooperation klandestiner Organisationen”.
[14] Cf. CitationSciascia, The Moro Affair; CitationGalli, Piombo rosso. La storia completa della lotta armata in Italia dal 1970 a oggi.
[15] CitationHermant and Bigo, “Analyse Statistique du Terrorisme en France”.
[16] CitationDartnell, Action Directe, 182, Appendix 5.2.
[17] Cf. CitationFrancq, “Les Cellules Communistes Combattantes: Les Deux Figures D'Une Inversion”; CitationOffergeld and Souris, Euro-Terrorisme: Le Belgique Étranglée.
[18] “Berlin: 115 Terror-Anschläge seit Juli 1969.” Bild, 31 May 1972: 1.
[19] On the resonance with Germany's past cf. CitationKoenen, Vesper, Ensslin, Baader.
[20] Cf. CitationDavis, “Activism from Starbuck to Starbucks, or Terror: What's in a Name?”.
[21] Cf. CitationGilcher-Holtey, Ingrid. “Der Transfer zwischen den Studentenbewegungen von 1968 und die Entstehung einer transnationalen Gegenöffentlichkeit”.
[22] Cf. CitationNehring, “National Internationalists: British and West German Protests against Nuclear Weapons, the Politics of Transnational Communications and the Social History of the Cold War”.
[23] Cf. for an early diagnosis CitationMorin, L'Esprit Du Temps, 205–21.
[24] Cf. CitationRosanvallon, L'Âge de l'Autogestion.
[25] Cf. CitationHorn, “The Changing Nature of the European Working”, 351–71; CitationTolomelli, “Repressiv getrennt” oder “organisch verbündet”. Studenten und Arbeiter 1968 in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland und Italien.
[26] Cf. CitationDi Giuseppe and Vecchio, “Die Friedensbewegungen in Italien”; CitationBeretta, Il Lungo Autonno. On the influence on later BR activists cf. CitationPeci, Io, l'Infame.
[27] Cf. CitationSchmidtke, Der Aufbruch der jungen Intelligenz.
[28] Kursbuch, 14 October 1967, quoted from CitationDutschke, Mein langer Marsch, 14.
[29] Cf. CitationOhrt, Phantom Avantgarde, 24; Tolomelli, “Repressiv getrennt” oder “organisch verbündet”.
[30] CitationGeismar, L'Engrenage Terroriste, 42.
[31] CitationLiniers, “Objections contre une Prise d'Armes”, 171.
[32] Cf. CitationGilcher-Holtey, “Die Phantasie an die Macht”. Mai 68 in Frankreich, 115–38.
[33] “Mai 68: Les Archives Secrètes de la Police.” L'Express 19 March 1998: 47.
[34] “Deux Témoignages sur les Heurts de Vendredi.” Le Monde 7 May 1968: 10; “Against the Police State we must continue to fight.” In CitationSchnapp and Vidal-Naquet, The French Student Uprising November 1967–June 1968, document 61: 194–96.
[35] Cf. Gilcher-Holtey, Phantasie, ch. 5.
[36] Cf. CitationTouraine, Le Communisme Utopique, 38.
[37] Cf. CitationHouse and MacMaster, Paris 1961.
[38] CitationKedward, La Vie en Bleu, 423.
[39] Quoted in CitationRoss, May '68 and its Afterlives, 81.
[40] CitationViale, Il Sessantotto.
[41] Paese Sera, 2 March 1968: 4; CitationHilwig, “The Revolt against the Establishment”.
[42] Cf. Viale, Il Sessantotto, 49.
[43] L'Espresso, 15 December 1968: 5; Marchetti, Aldo. “Un Teatro Troppo Serio.” Classe 13 (June 1982): 3–7 and the account by CitationGroppo, Bruno. “1968 en Italie et le Problème de la Violence”.
[44] Cf. CitationBalestrini, and Moroni, L'Orda d'Oro 1968–1977, 241–53; CitationTomasi, La Contestazione Religiosa Giovanile in Italia (1968–78).
[45] Cf. CitationDickie, Cosa Nostra; CitationBedeschi, Malefatte della rossa Emilia; CitationDavis, Conflict and Control; CitationAcquaviva, Guerriglia e Guerra Revoluzionaria in Italia. On the stay behind armies cf. CitationGanser, NATO's Secret Armies.
[46] CitationPasserini, “Das Jahr 1968 in Italien”; CitationWeinberg and Enbank, “Neo Fascist and Far Left Terrorists in Italy: Some Biographical Observations”.
[47] Cf. CitationThomas, Protest Movements in 1960s West Germany. A Social History of Dissent and Democracy, ch. 9.
[48] Speech at the Congress “Hochschule und Demokratie—Bedingungen und Organisation des Widerstandes” (9 June 1967). In Citation Bedingungen und Organisation des Widerstandes . Der Kongreß in Hannover. Berlin: AStA FU Berlin, 1967: 42–48.
[49] CitationMarcuse,“Das Problem der Gewalt in der Opposition”.
[50] CitationRühmkorf, Die Jahre die Ihr kennt, 216.
[51] CitationMeinhof, “Vom Protest zum Widerstand”.
[52] 9 June 1967, printed in CitationHabermas, Protestbewegung und Hochschulreform, 137–52.
[53] CitationSalvatore and Dutschke, “Introduction”.
[54] Cf., for example, La Croix 25/26 May 1968: 7, cols 3–4; Il Tempo 2 March 1968: 3; Parlamento della Repubblica, Camera dei Deputati, Resoconto delle Sedute Plenarie, 1 March 1968: 567; CitationPiccone Stella, “‘Rebels without a Cause’”; CitationWeinhauer, “Eliten, Generationen, Jugenddelinquenz und Innere Sicherheit. Die 1960er und frühen 1970er Jahre in der Bundesrepublik”.
[55] Berliner Zeitung 3 June 1967: 1.
[56] Bild (Berlin) 3 June 1967: 1.
[57] Cf. CitationD'Orsi, Angelo. Il Potere Repressivo. La Polizia. La Forze dell'ordine Italiano. Milan: Feltrinelli, 1973: 312–13.
[58] CitationMorin, “Mais (1978)”.
[59] Geismar, L'Engrenage, 53.
[60] Cf. CitationPlenel, “La Terrorisme à Vocation Révolutionnaire”.
[61] Cf. CitationGeismar, July and Morane, 256; CitationLe Goff, ch. 9: “Vers la Guerre Civile?”.
[62] “Illégalisme et Guerre: Texte fondateur de la Nouvelle Résistance Populaire.” In: Geismar, L'Engrenage, 159–79.
[63] CitationCavallini, Il Terrorismo in Fabbrica.
[64] CitationMoretti, Brigate Rosse, 11–12 and 47.
[65] CitationDalla Chiesa, Nando. “Il terrorismo di sinistra”.
[66] Balestrini and Moroni, L'Ordo, 405–08.
[67] Cf. CitationFocardi and Klinkhammer, 251–90; CitationCooke, 161–73.
[68] Cf. CitationKarmon, Ely. “The Red Brigades—Cooperation with the Palestinian Terrorist Organizations (1970–1990)”. Available from http://www.ict.org.il/articles/articledet.cfm?articleid = 365 (accessed 18 May 2007).
[69] Cf. the account in CitationAust, Der Baader Meinhof Komplex.
[70] Cf. “Die Rote Armee aufbauen” [5 June 1970]. In Citation Rote Armee Fraktion , 24–26.
[71] CitationWeisbrod, “Fundamentalist Violence: Political Violence and Political Religion in Modern Conflict”, 502.
[72] CitationBakker Schut, das info. Briefe von Gefangenen aus der RAF 1973–1977. Dokumente, 24.
[73] CitationBakker Schut, das info. Briefe von Gefangenen aus der RAF 1973–1977. Dokumente, 24.
[74] Cf. the quote in CitationHauser, Baader und Herold. Beschreibung eines Kampfes.
[75] Cf. CitationEbert, Gewaltfreier Aufstand—Alternative zum Bürgerkrieg.
[76] Cf., for example, CitationPohrt et al., Die alte Straßenverkehrsordnung, 43–45; L'Espresso 14, no. 4 (16 June 1968). For conservative and governmental voices cf. Kallscheuer, Otto, and Michael Sontheimer, eds. Citation Einschüsse. Besichtigungen eines Frontverlaufs . Zehn Jahre nach dem deutschen Herbst. Berlin: Rotbuch, 1987.
[77] Bild (Berlin), 13 April 1968: 1; CitationTarrow, Sidney G. “The Crisis of the late 60s in Italy and France”.
[78] Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung, 14 April 1977: 7; Die Welt, 7 September 1977: 8; Augstein, Rudolf. “Weltbürgerkrieg à la Bonn.” Der Spiegel no. 41 (1977): 13–14; Guzzanti, P. “La difesa di Moro.” La Repubblica, 10 March 1977: 8; Pavone, Claudio. “Sparo dunque sono. Il nodo della violenza.” Il Manifesto 6 May 1982: 3–12.
[79] Cf. for the West German case: CitationMusolff, Andreas. “Terrorismus im öffentlichen Diskurs der BRD: Seine Deutung als Kriegsgeschehen und die Folgen”.
[80] CitationMoretti, Brigate Rosse, 1996: 73. On the background cf. CitationKlinkhammer, “Die italienische Gesellschaft 1943–1945 zwischen Widerstand und Kollaboration”.
[81] Cf. CitationRusconi,“Die italienische Resistenza auf dem Prüfstand”.
[82] “Die RAF und wir—feindliche Konkurrenten. Ein Interview mit Valerio Morucci.” Der Spiegel no. 31 (1996): 110.
[83] CitationWisniewski, Wir waren so unheimlich konsequent; “‘Wir werden in den Durststreik treten.’ Spiegel Fragen an Andreas Baader, Ulrike Meinhof, Gudrun Ensslin und Jan-Carl Raspe.” Der Spiegel 20 January 1975: 52–57.
[84] Die Welt, 15 October 1977: 6.
[85] Die Welt, 7 September 1977: 7.
[86] CitationBöll, Heinrich. “Will Ulrike Gnade oder freies Geleit?”.
[87] Cf. CitationGalli, Giorgio. “La Politica Italiana”; CitationLumley and Schlesinger. “The Press, the State and its Enemies: The Italian Case”; CitationEvans, “Terrorism and Subversion of the State: Italian Legal Responses”.
[88] Cf. CitationQuadrupanni, L'Anti-Terrorisme en France; CitationBerstein and Milza, Histoire de la France au XXe Siècle, vol. 5: De 1974 à Nos Jours, ch. 2.
[89] CitationCorbin and Mayeur, La Barricade, 27; CitationTartakowsky, Le Pouvoir est dans la Rue.
[90] Cf. CitationGeyer, Michael. “Das Stigma der Gewalt und das Problem der nationalen Identität in Deutschland”.
[91] Cf. CitationJesse, Streitbare Demokratie; CitationMoses, “The State and the Student Movement in West Germany, 1967–77”.
[92] On these developments cf. CitationFunk and Werkentin, “Die siebziger Jahre: Das Jahrzehnt innerer Sicherheit?”.
[93] Cf. CitationBalz, “‘Der Sympathisanten’–Diskurs im Deutschen Herbst”; CitationNoelle-Neumann, Jahrbuch der öffentlichen Meinung 1968–73.
[94] Cf., for example, Böhm, Anton. “Die Saat der Gewalt.” Die Welt 10 August 1972: 7; CitationBilstein and Binder, Innere Sicherheit; on the general context cf. CitationSchildt, ‘“Die Kräfte der Gegenreform sind auf breiter Front angetreten.’ Zur konservativen Tendenzwende in den Siebzigerjahren”.
[95] Cf. the contributions by Duve, Böll and Staeck in Briefe zur Verteidigung der Republik; CitationCobler, Sebastian. Law, Order and Politics in West Germany.
[96] Cf. CitationKraushaar, “Antizionismus als trojanisches Pferd”, esp. 689–93.
[97] Cf., for example, Die Welt, 15 October 1977: 7. On the background cf. CitationSchreiber and Wolffsohn, Nahost.
[98] Schueler, Hans. “Terror ohne Ende. Die Entebbe-Aktion war ein Glücksfall.” Die Zeit 9 July 1976: 1; “Bonn: ‘Härte bedeutet Massaker’.” Der Spiegel, 5 July 1976: 21–25, especially 22. On the background cf. CitationVowinckel, “Der kurze Weg nach Entebbe oder die Verlängerung der deutschen Geschichte in den Nahen Osten”.
[99] Guggomos, Carl L. “Nie so pingelig.” konkret no. 8 (1976): 24–25.
[100] CitationMalinowski and Sedlmaier, ‘“1968’ als Katalysator der Konsumgesellschaft. Performative Regelverstöße, kommerzielle Adaptionen und ihre gegenseitige Durchdringung” 67; CitationSiegfried, “Ästhetik des Andersseins: Subkulturen zwischen Hedonismus und Militanz 1965 und 1970”.
[101] CitationNegt, “Sozialistische Politik und Terrorismus”.
[102] CitationRoth and Rucht, Neue Soziale Bewegungen in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland; CitationKriesi et al., New Social Movements in Western Europe.
[103] For the above argument with regard to Germany cf. CitationGeyer,“Krieg, Staat und Nationalismus im Deutschland des 20. Jahrhunderts”.
[104] Kedward, Vie en Bleu: 497–505; Citationdella Porta, “Social Movements and Non–Violence in Italy”; CitationAust, Brokdorf.
[105] For an overview cf. CitationDavis, Belinda. “Jenseits von Terror und Rückzug: Die Suche nach politischem Spielraum und Strategien im Westdeutschland der siebziger Jahre”; CitationPekelder, Jacco. “Het geweld der kameraden. CitationPeter Brückner, het terrorisme en de linkse identiteit”.
[106] Cf. CitationAlbesano, Storia dell'Obiezione di Coscienza in Italia; CitationBernhard, Patrick. Zivildienst zwischen Reform und Revolte, 196–218.
[107] Cf. CitationTouraine, La Société Post-Industrielle, 9; CitationScivoletto, Giorgio La Pira.; CitationLumley, States of Emergency, 273–78.
[108] Cf. Ross, May '68: 138–58; on Furet cf. CitationKhilnani, Arguing Revolution, chs 5 and 6.
[109] Frankfurter Spontis. “Uns treibt der Hunger nach Liebe, Zärtlichkeit und Freiheit…” Links no. 8 (July/August 1976): 11.
[110] Cf. CitationTarrow, Democracy and Disorder.
[111] Cf. CitationDella Porta, Fillieule and Reiter, “Policing Protest in France and Italy: From Intimidation to Cooperation?”; Citationdella Porta and Reiter, Policing Protest; CitationWeinhauer, “Zwischen ‘Partisanenkampf’ und ‘Kommissar Computer’: Polizei und Linksterrorismus in der Bundesrepublik bis Anfang der 1980er Jahre” as well as the essay by Herbert Reiter and Klaus Weinhauer in this issue.
[112] Cf. Sack, Fritz. “Die Reaktion von Gesellschaft, Politik und Staat auf die Studentenbewegung.” In Protest, edited by idem: 105–226, here 141; CitationReinand Schön, “Problem Setting in Policy Research”, 241–42.
[113] Cf., for example, the Spiegel series “Mord beginnt beim bösen Wort”, 3 October 1977.
[114] Brock, Bazon. “Frauen, Fluten, Körper.” Die Zeit 25 November 1977: 11; quote from: CitationTheweleit, Buch der Könige, vol. 1: Orpheus (und) Eurydike. On the background cf. CitationReichardt,“Klaus Theweleits ‘Männerphantasien’—ein Erfolgsbuch der 1970er-Jahre”.
[115] Göttinger Nachrichten 25 April 1977: 10–12. Reprinted in: Brückner, Mescalero-Affäre. For other examples cf. Dutschke, Rudi. “Kein Mench ist austauschbar” (28 September 1977), in Langer Marsch, 105–06. On the broader intellectual background in a West European context cf. CitationDirke, Sabine von. “All Power to the Imagination!”, 78–93.
[116] CitationBöll, Die verlorene Ehre der Katharina Blum oder Wie Gewalt entstehen und wohin sie führen kann, 74.
[117] CitationTeuns, “Isolation/ Sensorische Deprivation: die Programmierte Folter”.
[118] CitationKraushaar, Wolfgang. “Die Schleyer-Entführung. 44 Tage ohne Opposition”, 169; and the various contributions in CitationDuve et al., Briefe zur Verteidigung der Republik. On the background cf. CitationKunz, Der Sicherheitsdiskurs. On “constitutional patriotism” cf. CitationMüller, Jan-Werner.“On the Origins of Constutional Patriotism”.
[119] Cf. CitationWeinhauer,“‘Staat zeigen’”.
[120] CitationHabermas, Die Neue Unüersichtlichkeit; CitationDahrendorf, Lebenschancen, 147–66; CitationMaier, “A Surfeit of Memory? Reflections on History, Melancholy and Denial”.
[121] Cf. CitationJudt, Postwar, 561; CitationChristofferson, French Intellectuals against the Left; CitationGrémion, Modernisation et progressisme.
[122] Cf. CitationDi Nucci and Galli della Loggia, Due nazioni.
[123] Cf. CitationNegri, Books for Burning; CitationCrainz, Il Paese Mancato.
[124] CitationSheehan, James. “What it means to be a State: States and Violence in Twentieth-Century Europe”. On the continued importance of violence for statehood in a global perspective cf. CitationMazower, “Violence and the State in the Twentieth Century”.
[125] On the USA cf. CitationHofstadter, American Violence. On Britain cf. CitationEdgerton, David. Warfare State; CitationLawrence, Jon. “Forging a Peaceable Kingdom: War, Violence and the Fear of Brutalisation in Post-First World War Britain”. On US ‘terrorism’ cf. CitationVaron, Bringing the War Home.
[126] ”Editorial: Germany's Danse Macabre.” New German Critique no. 12 (1977): 3–6, especially 5–6.