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Abstract
While there was a categorical and simple division between slave and free in Athenian law, in social practice the situation was different. It is often impossible to tell whether an individual was free or slave; even more, there are many examples of citizens accused of being slaves. The explanation of this bifurcation between law and reality should be sought in the social content of Athenian citizenship. In Athens the privileges of citizenship extended to the lower classes of peasants, artisans, and shopkeepers. Slaves and freemen exercised the same professions; this overlap made it impossible to differentiate status solely on the basis of profession or living conditions. Thus, many slaves were in a position to take advantage of this blurring of identities to escape detection and create better conditions for themselves.
Acknowledgements
The author would like to thank Rachel Zelnick-Abramovitz, Niall McKeown and Virginia Hunter for their help.
Notes
1. CitationFinley, Economy and Society, 115.
2. But not debt bondage: see CitationHarris, “Did Solon abolish debt bondage?”
3. CitationFinley, Ancient Slavery, 67–92.
4. But see the modifications suggested by CitationRihll, “Origins and establishment”.
5. Hunter, “Introduction,” 5–15; CitationTodd, Shape of Athenian Law, 167–200.
6. CitationHarrison, Law of Athens, 236.
7. Aeschines, Against Timarchus, 138. All translations are adapted from the Loeb Classical Library, unless otherwise stated.
8. Demosthenes, Against Androtion, 55.
9. Andocides, On the Mysteries, 43; CitationThür, Beweisführung; CitationGagarin, “Torture of slaves”; CitationMirhady, “Torture and rhetoric”; Hunter, Policing Athens, 154–84.
10. See CitationJohnstone, Disputes and Democracy, 46–69.
11. See e.g. CitationFisher, “Independent slaves”.
12. CitationThür, “Der Streit über den Status”.
13. Demosthenes, Against Aphobus, 25–6.
14. Demosthenes, Against Timotheus, 55–6.
15. See CitationTrevett, Apollodorus, 1–9.
16. Isocrates, Trapeziticus, 13–14.
17. CitationThür, “Komplexe Prozessführung”.
18. Isaeus, On the Estate of Nicostratus, 9.
19. Lysias, On a Wound by Premeditation, 12.
20. Lysias, Against Simon.
21. CitationOsborne, Naturalization II, 11–16; CitationKapparis, “Athenian decree”.
22. But see CitationCairns, “Civic status”; CitationTodd, Commentary, 333–4.
23. Todd, Commentary, 279–81.
24. For the precariousness of the freedom of other free foreigners in certain circumstances, see the case in Dinarchus, Against Demosthenes, 23, where a miller is executed for keeping a free boy from a foreign city as a slave.
25. Demosthenes, Against Nicostratus, 16.
26. Demosthenes, Against Evergus and Mnesibulus, 61.
27. Ps-Demosthenes, Against Neaira, 9.
28. For the problems in interpreting this passage, see CitationWorthington, “The mysterious Cyreneans”.
29. Isaeus, On the Estate of Philoctemon, 19–24.
30. Aeschines, Against Timarchus, 54–64; Fisher, Aeschines, 189–204.
31. CitationZelnick-Abramovitz, Not Wholly Free, 298; Hunter, “Pittalacus and Eucles”.
32. CitationFisher, Aeschines, 357–62.
33. Fisher “Independent slaves,” 12.
34. See also the comments of Todd, Shape of Athenian Law, 192–194.
35. Zelnick-Abramovitz, Not Wholly Free, 293–94.
36. In another fragmentary speech of Isaeus it is stated that an unnamed person cast Hermocrates into prison, alleging he was a freedman, and did not release him until he extracted 30 drachmas: Isaeus, fragment 13.
37. Isaeus, fragment 16.
38. Demosthenes, Against Theocrines, 19–21.
39. See also Lysias, fragment 437 (Carey).
40 Characters, 28.2–3; translation from CitationDiggle, Characters.
41. Isaeus, On the Estate of Pyrrhus, 37.
42. CitationWhitehead, Demes, 97–109.
43. Aeschines, Against Timarchus, 114–15.
44. For problems with this story, see Fisher, Aeschines, 253–55.
45. Lysias, Against Nicomachus, 2; CitationJacob, Esclaves publics, 180–3.
46. Dinarchus, fragment 16.4. See Jacob, Esclaves publics, 119–21.
47. Lysias, Against Agoratus.
48. See the article by Marc Kleijwegt in this issue for the Roman connection between political services, manumission and citizenship.
49. For the text see CitationOsborne, Naturalization I, 28–30.
50. Osborne, Naturalization II, 16–21.
51. Lysias, Against Agoratus, 59–60.
52. Demosthenes, Against Aristogeiton I.
53. Demosthenes, Against Andorion, 61.
54. Andocides, fragment 5; See CitationBrun, “Hyperbolos”.
55. Demosthenes, On the Crown, 129–30.
56. Aeschines, On the Embassy, 79.
57. Aeschines, Against Ctesiphon, 171.
58. Demosthenes, Letter III, 29–30.
59. See CitationDavies, Athenian Propertied Families.
60. CitationOber, Mass and Elite, 270–1.
61. CitationScafuro, “Witnessing,” 173–4.
62. CitationRandall, “Erechtheum workmen”; CitationSchumacher, Sklaverei, 91–238.
63. CitationLauffer, Bergwerkssklaven.
64. For the important role of slaves in banking, see CitationCohen, Athenian Economy and Society, 61–110.
65. CitationPerotti, “Esclaves choris oikountes”.
66. CitationCohen, Athenian Nation, 130–54.
67. Hypereides, Against Athenogenes, 9–10.
68. Constitution of the Athenians, 1.11–2; CitationKlees, Sklavenleben, 355–78.
69. Klees, Sklavenleben, 64–74.
70. Constitution of the Athenians, 1.10. See CitationCataldi, “Akolasia”.
71. Demosthenes, Against Eubulides; CitationLacey, “The family of Euxitheus”.
72. CitationHumphreys, “Kinship patterns,” 60–2.
73. Demosthenes, Against Eubulides, 18.
74. See also CitationCohen, “Women, property and status,” 58–61.
75. CitationBäbler, Fleissige Thrakerinnen, 37–43.
76. Demosthenes, Against Eubulides, 42.
77. Demosthenes, Against Eubulides, 45.
78. See also CitationSilver, “Slaves versus free hired workers”.
79. Lysias, Against Pancleon.
80. Zelnick-Abramovitz, Not Wholly Free, 296–98.
81. CitationRhodes and Osborne, Greek Historical Inscriptions, 38–9; CitationJones, Associations, 83–6.
82. CitationVlassopoulos, “Free spaces,” 39–47.
83. Isaeus, On behalf of Euphiletus, 1–2.