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Abstract
Employing the example of two Polish technical experts – the metallurgist Jan Czochralski and the architect-urbanist Szymon Syrkus, who both reached the peak of their careers in the Interwar period – this article sketches a particular space of expertise in the newly developing states of Central Europe after 1918 and in Poland in particular. For experts like Czochralski and Syrkus a new and pronounced state activity helped to create a space of opportunities but was also a source of severe restrictions and demands for loyalty. With the Second World War and then with the establishment of a socialist regime this space vanished and a particular type of expert, relying heavily on the transnational structures still in place in Central Eastern Europe before the war, almost ceased to exist.
Notes
1. A popular Polish vernacular style.
2. Syrkus, Szymon. “Preliminarz Architektury.” Praesens 1 (1926): 6–16, 6.
3. CitationCzochralski, Jan. “Drogi i metody postępu technicznego.” Przegląd Techniczny 42 (1929): 947–9, 949.
4. Such an approach is still rarely to be found. As one of the rare examples, and also using the example of Poland with a focus on the literary avant-garde, see: Shore, Marci. Caviar and Ashes: A Warsaw Generation's Life and Death in Marxism. 1918–1968. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2006. CitationEngstrom, Eric J., Volker Hess, and Ulrike Thoms, eds. Figurationen des Experten. Ambivalenzen der wissenschaftlichen Expertise im ausgehenden 18. und frühen 19. Jahrhundert. Frankfurt am Main: Lang, 2005. See also: CitationDahlmann, Dittmar, ed. Elitenwanderung und Wissenstransfer im 19. und 20. Jahrhundert. Essen: Klartext, 2008. Szöllösi-Janze, Margit. “Lebens-Geschichte – Wissenschafts-Geschichte. Vom Nutzen der Biographie für Geschichtswissenschaft und Wissenschaftsgeschichte.” Berichte zur Wissenschaftsgeschichte 23 (2000): 17–35.
5. Kohlrausch, Martin. “Technological Innovation and Transnational Networks: Europe between the Wars.” Journal of Modern European History 2 (2008): 181–95. See also Raphael, Lutz. “Die Verwissenschaftlichung des Sozialen als methodische und konzeptionelle Herausforderung für eine Sozialgeschichte des 20. Jahrhunderts.” Geschichte und Gesellschaft, 22: 165–93; CitationAsh, Mitchell G. “Wissens- und Wissenschaftstransfer – Einführende Bemerkungen.” Berichte zur Wissenschaftsgeschichte 29 (2006): 181–9.
6. Vogel, Jakob. “Von der Wissenschafts- zur Wissensgeschichte. Für eine Historisierung der ‘Wissensgesellschaft’.” Geschichte und Gesellschaft 30 (2004): 639–60.
7. Scott, James C. Seeing like a State: How Certain Schemes to Improve the Human Condition have Failed. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1998.
8. CitationClavin, Patricia, and Jens-Wilhelm Wessels. “Transnationalism and the League of Nations. Understanding the Work of Its Economic and Financial Organisation.” Contemporary European History 14 (2005): 465–92.
9. Jessen, Ralph, and Jakob Vogel, eds. Wissenschaft und Nation in der europäischen Geschichte. Frankfurt am Main: Campus, 2002.
10. Maier, Charles. “Consigning the Twentieth Century to History: Alternative Narratives for the Modern Era.” American Historical Review 105 (2000), 807–31.
11. Vgl. CitationHeymann, Matthias, and Ulrich Wengenroth. “Die Bedeutung von ‘tacit knowledge’ bei der Gestaltung von Technik.” in Die Modernisierung der Moderne, ed. Ulrich Beck and Wolfgang Bonß, 106–21. Frankfurt am Main: Suhrkamp, 2001.
12. See: CitationFox, R. “Fashioning the Discipline: History of Science in the European Intellectual Tradition.” Minerva 44 (2006): 410–32.
13. Maier, Helmut. Forschung als Waffe. Rüstungsforschung in der Kaiser-Wilhelm-Gesellschaft und das Kaiser-Wilhelm-Institut für Metallforschung 1900–1945/48, I. Göttingen: Wallstein, 2007, p. 91.
14. Trischler, Helmuth; Weinberger, Hans. “Engineering Europe: Big Technologies and Military Systems.” History and Technology 21 (2005): 49–83; Krige, John, and Kai-Henrik Barth. “Science, Technology, and International Affairs.” Osiris 21, no. 1 (2006): 1–21.
15. Sutcliffe, A. Towards the Planned City: Germany, Britain, the United States and France 1780–1914, 163–201. Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1981; CitationAlbers, Gerd. Zur Entwicklung der Stadtplanung in Europa. Begegnungen, Einflüsse, Verflechtungen. Braunschweig: Vieweg, 1997.
16. This question has thus far not been adequately addressed. However, see the case study: CitationBrzeziński, Andrzej Maciej. Polska Komisja Międzynarodowej Współpracy Intelektualnej. 1924–1939. Łódź: Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Łódzkiego, 2001.
17. CitationBerend, Iván T. Decades of Crisis: Central and Eastern Europe before World War II. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2001; CitationAldcroft, Derek Howard. Europe's Third World. The European Periphery in the Interwar Years. Aldershot: Ashgate, 2006.
18. Landau, Zbigniew and Jerzy Tomaszewski, eds. Zarys Historii Gospodarczej Polski 1918–1939. Warsaw: Książka i Wiedza, 1999; Piłatowicz, Józef. “Nauka – technika – produkcja w dwudziestoleciu międzywojennym.” Zagadnienia naukoznawstwa 2, no. 98 (1989): 241–60, 260. Also Nowak, Mariusz. “Rola specjalistów zagranicznych w mordernizacji zakladów przemystowych COP.” In Centralny Okręg Przemysłowy. Infrastruktura-produkcja-procesy miastotwórcze. Materiały konferencji naukowej odbytej w Radomiu 19 grudnia 2005 roku, ed. Sebastian Piątkowski, 17-25, Radom: Tow. Nauk, 2005.
19. CitationCaumanns, Ute. “Mietskasernen und,Gläserne Häuser’: Soziales Wohnen in Warschau zwischen Philanthropie und Genossenschaft. 1900–1939.” in Wohnen in der Großstadt. 1900–1939, ed. Alena Janatková and Hanna Kozińska-Witt, 205–224: 2006; Wohnsituation und Modernisierung im europäischen Vergleich. Stuttgart: Steiner (Forschungen zur Geschichte und Kultur des östlichen Mitteleuropa, 26), 205–24.
20. Kochanowicz, Jacek. Backwardness and Modernization: Poland and Eastern Europe in the 16th–20th Centuries, Aldershot: Ashgate (Variorum), 2006.
21. Paulmann, Johannes. “Grenzüberschreitungen und Grenzräume. Überlegungen zur Geschichte transnationaler Beziehungen von der Mitte des 19. Jahrhunderts bis in die Zeitgeschichte.” In Geschichte der internationalen Beziehungen. Erneuerung und Erweiterung einer historischen Disziplin, ed. Eckart Conze, Ulrich Lappenküper and Guido Müller, 170–96. Köln: Böhlau, 2004.
22. Misa, Thomas J. and Johan Schot. “Inventing Europe: Technology and the Hidden Integration of Europe.” History and Technology 21 (2005): 1–20.
23. Generally, the era of the Second Republic still seems to be a rather under-researched period in Polish history. But see: Żarnowski, Janusz. Polska 1918–1939, praca – technika – społeczeństwo. Warszawa: Księżka i Wiedza, 1992; Piłatowicz, Józef. Kadra inżynierska w II Rzeczypospolitej. Siedlce: Wydawnictwa Uczelniane WSR-P, 1994.
24. CitationCrawford, Elisabeth T., Terry Shinn, and Sverker Sorlin, ed. Denationalizing Science: The Contexts of International Scientific Practice, 13. Dordrecht–Boston: Kluwer, 1993. See also Somsen, Geert J.A. “History of Universalism: Conceptions of the Internationality of Science from the Enlightenment to the Cold War.” Minerva 46 (2008): 361–79.
25. Czochralski, Jan. “Ein neues Verfahren zur Messung der Kristallisationsgeschwindigkeit der Metalle.” Zeitschrift für Physikalische Chemie 92 (1918): 219–21.
26. CitationEvers, Jürgen, Peter Klüfers, Peter Staudigl and Peter Stallhofer. “Czochralski's Creative Mistake: A Milestone on the Way to the Gigabit Era.” Angewandte Chemie. International Edition 42, no. 46: 5684–98.
27. Paweł Tomaszewski from the University of Wrocław has conducted much research in recent years to return the life of Jan Czochralski from oblivion, into which it fell after 1945, and published the following short biography: Jan Czochralski i jego metoda (Jan Czochralski and his Method). Wrocław, 2003. I am deeply indebted to him for sharing his knowledge with me.
28. Steffen, Katrin. “Wissenschaftler in Bewegung. Der Materialforscher Jan Czochralski zwischen den Weltkriegen.” Journal of Modern European History 2 (2008): 237–60.
29. On the topic of the metal laboratory, see CitationEvers, Jürgen, Ulrich von Möllendorff and Ulrich Marsch. “Wichard von Moellendorff (1881–1937). Materialprüfer, Metallforscher, Wirtschaftspolitiker.” Technikgeschichte 71, no. 2: (2004), 139–57, 139–42.
30. Von Moellendorff, Wichard, and Jan Czochralski. “Technologische Schlüsse aus der Kristallographie der Metalle.” Zeitschrift des Vereins Deutscher Ingenieure 57 (1913): 931–5 and 1014–20.
31. CitationHughes, Thomas P. and Walther Rathenau. “System builder.” In Ein Mann vieler Eigenschaften. Walther Rathenau und die Kultur der Moderne, ed. Tilmann Buddensieg, Thomas P. Hughes and Jürgen Kocka, 9–31, 17. Berlin: Wagenbach, 1990; Piłatowicz, “Nauka – technika – produkcja.”
32. Reinhardt, Carsten, and Anthony S. Travis. Heinrich Caro and the Creation of Modern Chemical Industry, 219–56. Dordrecht: Kluwer, 2000; and Meyer-Thurow, Georg. “The Industrialization of Invention: A Case Study From the German Chemical Industry.” Isis 73 (1982): 363–81; for a pan-European perspective: Travis, Anthony S., et al., eds. Determinants in the Evolution of the European Chemical Industry, 1900–1939: New Technologies, Political Frameworks, Markets and Companies, Dordrecht–Boston–London: Springer: 1998.
33. Maier, Forschung als Waffe, 105–7.
34. Maier, Forschung als Waffe, 170.
35. Maier, Forschung als Waffe, 188.
36. Citation75 Jahre (1919–1994). Deutsche Gesellschaft für Materialkunde e.V. Die Geschichte der DGM im Spiegel der Zeitschrift für Metallkunde, Offenbach 1994, 4.
37. ‘Wir müssen unser Augenmerk auf das Praktische richten … und die Bestrebungen des Auslands durch wuchtige Arbeit durchkreuzen… Wir müssen die Verarbeitung der Metalle so beherrschen, daß wir uns nichts vom Ausland vorzuschreiben lassen brauchen, und wir müssen die Fabrikation so einstellen, daß wir den größten Gewinn herausholen können. Erst dann können wir gegen das Ausland auftreten.…’ Inaugural meeting of the German Society for Metallurgy, 27 November 1919. In Zeitschrift für Metallkunde. Neue Folge der Internationalen Zeitschrift für Metallographie Band XI (Leipzig 1919): 201–16, 205–6.
38. Forschergruppe zur Geschichte DFG 1920–1970, Bericht zur Abschlusskonferenz am 30/31. Januar 2008 in Berlin, Teil: Die DFG und die Forschungsförderung der metallischen Roh- und Werkstoffe, 161–9, 162.
39. See also CitationHartcup, Gay. The War of Invention: Scientific Developments, 1914–1918, vii. London, Washington: Brassey's Defence Publishers, 1988.
40. Cited from CitationBocheński, Aleksander. Wędrówki po dziejach przemysłu polskiego, 159. Warszawa: Pax, 1966.
41. Archive of the publishing house Julius Springer in Heidelberg, Germany, correspondence of Czochralski.
42. See Tomasezwski, Paweł E., “Uczony, którego nie ma,” Fakty w INTERIA.pl. http://fakty.interia.pl/prasa/odkrywca/news/uczony-ktorego-nie-ma,1232590,4961.
43. Ścisłowski, Czesław. Prezydent Rzeczypospolitej Prof. Ignacy Mościcki jako badacz naukowy i wynalazca. Płock 1935; Mościcki, Ignacy. Prezydent RP- Autobiografia Wstęp, przypisy i wybór wywiadów i deklaracji publicznych Marian Marek Drozdowski. Warszawa, 1993.
44. See Piłatowicz, Józef. Kształcenie inżynierów dla potrzeb wojska w Polsce okresu międzywojennego. Studia i Materiały do Historii Wojskowości XXXIII (1990), 289–315, 309.
45. On these functions of scientists, see Szöllösi-Janze, Margret. “Der Wissenschaftler als Experte. Kooperationsverhältnisse von Staat, Militär, Wirtschaft und Wissenschaft, 1914–1933.” In Geschichte der Kaiser-Wilhelm-Gesellschaft im Nationalsozialismus. Bestandsaufnahme und Perspektiven der Forschung, Bd. 1, hg. v. Doris Kaufmann, 40–58. Göttingen, 2000.
46. Archive of the Deutsches Museum München, bequest of Walther Gerlach, NL 080/653.
47. Bayerisches Hauptstaatsarchiv München (BayHSta), MK 54508, Walther Gerlach: Bericht über meine Vortrags- und Studienreise nach Polen (Warschau und Posen) vom 6. Mai bis 12. Mai 1939.
48. Hessisches Wirtschaftsarchiv Darmstadt, Akten der Metallgesellschaft, Juristisches Büro, note from July 3, 1941 concerning contracts with Czochralski.
49. Broniewski in general was supposed to militate against the training of engineers at the polytechnic – at least colonel Tadeusz Felsztyn writes this in his memoirs, see Piłatowicz, Kształcenie inżynierów, 302, Anm. 35.
50. Gazeta Polska vom 15.10.1936: z sali sądowej: Prof. Czochralski contra prof. Broniewski.
51. See Zeszyty Historyczne Politechniki Warszawskiej 2 (1996): Geneza i wydziału inżenyerii materiałowej Politechniki Warszawskiej 1898–1970, ed. Eugeniusz Tyrkiel.
52. For the complex interaction between enmity and cultural transfer, between hostile defence on the one side and ready adoption on the other, see CitationAust, Martin, and Daniel Schönpflug eds. Vom Gegner lernen. Feindschaften und Kulturtransfers im Europa des 19. und 20. Jahrhunderts. Frankfurt–New York: Campus, 2007, especially Paulmann, Johannes. “Feindschaft und Verflechtung. Anmerkungen zu einem scheinbaren Paradox,” 341–56, 343.
53. See for example on that Knorr Cetina, Karin. “Das naturwissenschaftliche Labor als Ort der ‘Verdichtung’ von Gesellschaft.” Zeitschrift für Soziologie 17, no. 2, (1988): 85–101, 87; Latour, Bruno. Science in Action: How to follow Scientists and Engineers through Society. Cambridge MA: Harvard University Press, 1987; Shaffer, Simon, and Steven Shapin. Leviathan and the Air-Pump: Hobbes, Boyle and the Experimental Life. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1985.
54. Appadurai, Arjun. Modernity at Large: Cultural Dimensions of Globalization, Minneapolis–London: University of Minnesota Press, 1996.
55. Archiwum Państwowe Łodź, Prokuratura Sędu Specjalnego Karnego w Łodzi, sygn. 597.
56. CitationAman, Anders. Architecture and Ideology in Eastern Europe during the Stalin Era, 173. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1992.
57. A biography or at least a more extensive treatment of Syrkus's life is still lacking. The best information in print can be obtained from: CitationChionne, Roberta. “Blok e Praesens. Dagli ideali del costruttivismo alla sperimentazione funzionale.” In Costruttivismo in Polonia, ed. Silvia Parlagreco, 157–98. Torino: Bollati Boringhieri, 2005. The most extensive account on the work of the circle around Syrkus is his wife, Helena Syrkus's work: Syrkus, Helena. Ku idei osiedla społecznego. 1925–1975. Warszawa: Państwowe Wydawnctwo Naukowe, 1976.
58. For an overview see: Kłosiewicz, Lech. “Architektur und Stadtplanung in Polen. 1918– 1939.” Der Architekt (1988): 49–56. Milobedzki, Adam, ed. Architecture and Avant-Garde in Poland 1918–1939. Milan: CIPIA, 1996; Leśnikowski, Wojciech. “Functionalism in Polish Architecture.” In East European Modernism: Architecture in Czechoslovakia, Hungary & Poland between the Wars. 1919–1939, ed. Wojciech Leśnikowski, 203–85. New York: Rizzoli, 1996. Nowakowska-Sito, Katarzyna, ed. Wyprawa w dwudziestolecie. Warsaw: Muzeum Narodowe w Warszawie, 2008.
59. Minorski, Jan. Polska nowatorska myśl architektoniczna w latach 1918–1939. Warschau: PWN, 1970, p. 206.
60. Minorski, Polska nowatorska myśl, 210–13; Politechnika: Zakład Architektury Polskiej, ed. Warszawska Szkoła Architektury, 1915–1965. Warsaw: Państwowe Wydawnictwo Naukowe, 1967.
61. Klosiewicz, Lech. “Modernizm polski: seminarium w stulecie urodzin pokolenia modernistów polskich.” Kwartalnik Architektury i Urbanistyki 45 (2000): 84–95.
62. Saint, Andrew. Architect and Engineer: A study in Sibling Rivalry. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2008.
63. It is estimated that due to war damages in the years between 1914 and 1921 1,837,000 buildings were destroyed on the territory of the Second Polish Republic. Minorski, Polska nowatorska myśl, 11–15.
64. See, for example, the Syrkus couple's programme to construct 100,000 flats a year using new prefabrication systems. Roguska, Jadwiga. “The New Housing Between Dogma and Reality.” In Architecture and Avant-Garde in Poland 1918–1939, ed. Adam Milobedzki, 60–72. Milan: CIPIA, 1996, 67. Urbanik, Jadwiga. “Szymon Syrkus. CIAM Representative of Poland and Pioneer in Integrated Building Science in Modern Architecture. Climate and Building Physics in the Modern Movement.” Preservation Technology Dossier 9, ed. Jos Tomlow, 53–60. Zittau: Hochschule Zittau/Görlitz, 2006.
65. From 169 in 1919 to 1042 in 1939. Minorski, Polska nowatorska myśl, 183.
66. For a general account of the phenomenon see: Trommler, Frank. “The Avant-Garde and Technology.” Science in Context 8 (2005): 397–416.
67. Stiller, Adolph, ed. Architektur in Polen, 40. Salzburg: Pustet, 2008.
68. CitationCzaplinksa-Archer, Teresa. “Polish Architecture: The Contribution of Helena and Szymon Syrkus.” Architectural Association Quarterly 13 (1987): 37–44, 39.
69. Syrkus, Helena, and Szymon Syrkus. O Architekturze I Produkcji Mieszkań Robotniczych. Warsaw, 1935. Mazur, Elżbieta. Warszawksa Spółdzielnia Mieszkaniowia 1921–1939. Materialne warunki bytu robotników i inteligencji. Warsaw, 1993.
70. The WSM also provided the link to a reform movement which went far beyond the sphere of architecture, a link which is also expressed in Syrkus's projects for sanatoria. Tołwiński, Stanisław. Wspomnienia, 1895–1939, 329–35. Warsaw: Państwowe Wydawnictwo Naukowe, 1970.
71. On the artistic relevance of Syrkus see the projects by Syrkus presented in: Architektura i Budownictwo (AiB) 5 (1929): 34–35 and AiB 10 (1934): 117–21. A list of the works realised by Syrkus can be found in: Politechnika, Warszawska Szkoła, 252–3.
72. Syrkus, Szymon. “Preliminarz Architektury.” Praesens 1 (1926): 6–16.
73. Tołwiński, Wspomnienia, 326–7.
74. Giedion, Siegfried (12.06.1928): “Aufnahme S. Syrkus in die CIAM.” Giedion-papers. Institut für Geschichte und Theorie der Architektur ETH Zürich (gta) – ETH Zürich.
75. Syrkus, Helen and Szymon Syrkus (1935). “Korrespondenz im Hinblick auf CIRPAC-Treffen in Amsterdam. Funktionelle Stadt, Regionalplanung.” CIAM-papers 42 K, gta; Giedion, Sigfried (1936). “Korrespondenz Giedion mit H. u. S. Syrkus wg. Vorbereitung La Sarraz, Regionalplanung, Propagandamaterial für USA.” CIAM-papers 42 K, gta.
76. Syrkus, Szymon (June 1937). “Rozwiązania zasadnicze w zastosowania do regionów i wsi.” Syrkus papers 39 H, Muzeum Architektury w Wrocławiu (MAW).
77. Mumford, Eric. The CIAM Discourse on Urbanism, 1928–1960. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2000; Somer, Kees. The Functional City: CIAM and the legacy of Van Eesteren. Rotterdam: NAI Publishers, 2007.
78. See illustration in AiB 3 (1927): 194.
79. See, for example, Syrkus's article on “Le Mur Exterieur” in the proceedings of the 4th CIAM congress. Chambre Technique de Grèce. Le IVe Congres Internarional D'Architecture Moderne a Athenes ‘La Ville Fonctionelle’. Annales Technique 4 (1934): 44–6.
80. For this purpose, Syrkus also managed to successfully include Polish experts on housing and cooperatives, themselves not architects, in the CIAM organisation. Syrkus, Szymon (1929). “Schreiben an Giedion und Moser in Vorbereitung auf Frankfurter Kongreß.” CIAM papers 42 K, gta. See also Syrkus, Szymon. “Het Nieuwe Bouwen in Polen.” De 8 en opbouw 13 (1934): 105–11.
81. Syrkus, Szymon (13.9.1929). “Berichte über Publikationen zur CIAM in Praesens, DOM und AiB.” CIAM-papers 42 K, gta.
82. Kohlrausch, Martin. “Die CIAM und die Internationalisierung der Architektur. Das Beispiel Polen.” Themenportal Europäische Geschichte (2007). http://www.europa.clio-online.de/2007/Article = 258.
83. Giedion, Sigfried (24. Januar 1933). “Durchreise der CIAM-Mitglieder durch Warschau und Aufenthalt dort vor Kongress in Moskau.” CIAM-papers 42 K, gta. See also the letter by Syrkus to Giedion of 10 April 1933, ibid.
84. This assessment is also supported by the huge space CIAM covers in autobiographies of Polish architects and social reformers. See Syrkus, Helena. Społeczne Cele Urbanizacji. Człowiek i środowisko, 198–280. Warsaw: Państwowe Wydawnictwo Naukowe, 1984; Tołwiński, Wspomnienia, 343–431.
85. See, for example, the numerous international references in: Syrkus, Szymon, “Fabrykacja Osiedli.” AiB 4 (1928), 277–98.
86. See the examples presented by Mansbach, Steven A. Modern Art in Eastern Europe: From the Baltic to the Balkans, ca. 1890– 1939. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999; and Störtkuhl, Beate, “Gdynia – Meeresmetropole der Zweiten Polnischen Republik.” In Neue Staaten – neue Bilder. Visuelle Kultur im Dienst staatlicher Selbstdarstellung in Zentral- und Osteuropa seit 1918, ed. Arnold Bartetzky and Thomas Fichtner, 33–46. Köln: Böhlau, 2005. Piotr Piotrowski even notes a nationalisation of modernism in Poland. Piotrowski, Piotr. “Modernity and Nationalism. Avant-Garde Art and the Polish Independence. 1912–1922.” In Central European Avant-gardes: Exchange and Transformation. 1910–1930, ed. Timothy O. Benson, 312–26. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2005.
87. Syrkus, Szymon (22.06.1937). “Syrkus über CIAM-Ost und die polnische CIAM-Gruppe.” CIAM-papers 42 K, gta.
88. CitationChmielewski, Jan, and Szymon Syrkus. Warszawa funkcjonalna. Warsaw, 1934; Małisz, Bolesław. “Functional Warsaw: a challenge from the past.” Planning Perspectives 2 (1987): 254–69.
89. Vossoughian, Nader. “Mapping the Modern City: Otto Neurath, the International Congress of Modern Architecture (CIAM), and the Politics of Information Designin Design Issues 22 (2006): 48–65.
90. Leśnikowska, Marta. Architektura w Warszawie, 8–11. Warsaw: Arkada, 2005.
91. Wynot, Edward D. Warsaw between the World Wars: Profile of a Capital City in a Developing Land. 1918–1939, 162–72. Boulder, CO: East European Monographs, 1983.
92. Kuhn, Gerd. “Standardwohnung oder Individualwohnung. Zur Wohndiät und Choreografie des Wohnalltags in den 20er Jahren.” Archplus 158 (2001): 66–71; CitationBeauregard, Robert A. “Writing Transnational Histories.” Journal of Planning History 4 (2005), 392–402.
93. Giedion, Sigfried (12. Mai 1937). “Nachfrage zur CIAM-Ost-Tagung in der Tschechoslowakei.” CIAM-papers 42 K, gta. Misa, Thomas J. “Appropriating the International Style: Modernism in East and West.” In Urban Machinery: Inside Modern European Cities, ed. Mikael Hard and Thomas J. Misa, 71–95. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2008; Platzer, Monika. “Die CIAM und ihre Verbindungen nach Zentraleuropa.” In Mythos Großstadt. Architektur und Stadtbaukunst in Zentraleuropa. 1890–1937, ed. Eve Blau and Monika Platzer, 227–31. Munich: Prestel, 1999.
94. See the many practical examples in: Syrkus, Helena and Szymon Syrkus. “Korrespondenz mit Steiger und Giedion wg. Vorbereitung La Sarraz 1936.” CIAM-papers 42 K, gta.
95. Plach, Eva. The Clash of Moral Nations: Cultural Politics in Piłsudski's Poland, 1926–1935, 160–2. Athens, OH: Ohio University Press, 2006.
96. Syrkus, Helena (17. Januar 1939). “Brief an Gropius und Giedion wg. Planes der beiden Syrkus, in die USA zu gehen.” CIAM-papers, 42 K, gta, On – eventually fruitless – attempts by Gropius and other CIAM members to help the Syrkus couple leave Poland see: Isaacs, Reginald R. Walter Gropius, 892. Berlin: Gebr. Mann (2), 1984.
97. Syrkus, Szymon. “prof. Szymon Syrkus listy z Oświecimia dokumenty z okresu okupacji.” MUW, III b 578/1–34 – 578/1–2, III b 599/1–18.
98. Syrkus, Helena (12.05.1977). “Klärungen zur Rolle der polnischen Gruppe in der CIAM.” Steinmann Papers, gta. See also: CitationGutschow, Niels, and Barbara Klain. Vernichtung und Utopie. Stadtplanung Warschau 193 − 1945. Hamburg: Junius, 1994, 171–174. Syrkus, Helena and Szymon Syrkus. “Planning and Housing in Warsaw: With particular reference to the Second Residential Group of the Neighbourhood Unit of the Warsaw Housing Co-operative, at Kolo (Warszawa).” In Architect's Year Book 3 (1949): 55–64.
99. For one of the last prominent international references to Syrkus's work see: Riesman, David. “Some Observations on Community Plans and Utopia.” Yale Law Journal 57 (1947): 173–200.
100. Aman, Architecture and Ideology, 173–5.
101. CitationGeyer, Martin, and Johannes Paulmann, eds. The Mechanics of Internationalism: Culture, Society, and Politics from the 1840s to the First World War. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001; CitationEckert, Michael “Strategic Internationalism and the Transfer of Technical Knowledge.” Technology & Culture 46 (2005): 104–31.
102. For the examples of Great Britain and Germany see Rieger, Bernhard. Technology and the Culture of Modernity in Britain and Germany: 1890–1945. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2005 (New Studies in European History).
103. Somsen, History of Universalism, 366.
104. Denatationalizing science, 36.
105. Livingstone, David, ed. Science, Space and Hermeneutics. Stuttgart: Steiner (Hettner-Lectures 5), 2002.
106. On this phenomenon see Szöllösi-Janze, Margit. “Science and Social Space: The Transformations in the Institutions of Wissenschaft from the Wilhelmine Empire to the Weimar Republic.” Minerva 43 (2005): 339–60.
107. Maier, Charles. “Transformations of Territoriality 1600–2000.” In Transnationale Geschichte. Themen, Tendenzen und Theorien, ed. Gunilla Budde, Sebastian Conrad and Oliver Janz, 32–55, 35, 48. Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 2006.
108. To what degree this constituted a particular experience of modernity in Poland would be another question worth discussing. CitationEisenstadt, Shmuel Noah, ed. Multiple Modernities. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Publishers, 2002.