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Abstract
This article examines the relationship between the erudite hermit Peter Damian (c.1007–1072) and the abbey of Montecassino through a study of the manuscripts of his works housed in the abbey's scriptorium. Damian was a prolific writer and reformer whose ideas on spiritual perfection helped to shape the ideals of the ‘Gregorian Reform’ movement in the eleventh century. Through nurturing important relationships with monasteries such as Montecassino, Damian was able to articulate his ideas on monastic behaviour and how they translated into practice. Damian's correspondence with Montecassino revealed his thoughts on the connection between the eremitic and coenobitic vocations and how monks might ascend the spiritual hierarchy. A study of the manuscripts of Damian's letters reveals how the monks at Montecassino read and responded to those texts which were not only addressed to their community but also to other institutions. Whilst recent studies have informed historians about the nature of the spiritual life at Montecassino in the Middle Ages, and also of certain aspects of Damian's connection with the institution, to date there has been no study of the Damian manuscripts for what they can reveal of this complex spiritual relationship. This article therefore aims to contribute to recent scholarship on this issue whilst also seeking to shed light on the manuscript culture of eleventh-century monastic reform institutions.
Notes
1. For arguments concerning the nature of the Abbey's ‘golden age’ see CitationCowdrey, H.E.J. The Age of Abbot Desiderius: Montecassino, the Papacy, and the Normans in the Eleventh and Early Twelfth Centuries. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1983; and CitationLoud, G.A. “Abbot Desiderius of Montecassino and the Gregorian Papacy.” Journal of Ecclesiastical History 30, no. 3 (July, 1979): 305–26.
2. Damian's letters to Montecassino comprise numbers 49, 82, 86, 90, 95, 102, 106, 119, 126, 127, 159, 160 and 161. See Damian, Peter. Die Briefe des Petrus Damiani, ed. CitationK. Reindel, 4 vols (MGH, Briefe der deutschen Kaiserzeit, 5: 1–4; Munich, 1983–93), English trans. CitationO.J. Blum and Irven M. Resnick, The Letters of Peter Damian, 6 vols. Washington, DC: The Fathers of the Church, Medieval Continuation, 1989–2005.
3. Cf. CitationHowe, J. “Peter Damian and Montecassino.” Revue Benedictine 107 (1997): 330–51; CitationNewton, F. The Library and Scriptorium at Montecassino 1058–1105. Cambridge, 1999; CitationBloch, H. Monte Cassino in the Middle Ages, 3 vols. Rome, 1986; and Cowdrey, The Age of Abbot Desiderius.
4. CitationBlum, O.J. St Peter Damian: His Teaching on the Spiritual Life, 2. Washington DC, 1947.
5. See CitationJohn of Lodi, Vita Petri Damiani, PL 144, 145–168, hereafter VPD.
6. Damian described his schooldays in Parma in a letter to Landulf, Bishop of Milan, written after 1060. See Letter 70, 2: 310–322. Cf. Blum, 3.
7. Letter 70, 3. Cf. CitationCowdrey, H.E.J. “Anselm of Besate and Some Northern Italian Scholars of the Eleventh Century” JEH 23 (1972): 115–24 for a broader discussion of the educational provisions for north Italian scholars and north Italian scholarly tradition in the eleventh century, esp. 119–20.
8. VPD, c.7, 125.
9. See Letter 57, 2: 162–190 and 72, 2: 326–366.
10. Cowdrey, The Age of Abbot Desiderius, xiv.
11. Blum, St Peter Damian, 16.
12. The Epistolae Vagantes of Pope Gregory VII, ed. CitationH.E.J. Cowdrey. Oxford, 1972: Letter 28, 74: ‘Siquidem tolerabilius nobis uideretur uillas et castella sancti Benedicti in praedam et direpcionem dari quam ut sanctus locus et per totam, ut credimus, christianitatem famosus et uenerabilis tante ignominie periculo subiaceret…’ Cf. Loud, “Abbot Desiderius,” 305.
13. Letter 86, 461: ‘Quamobrem summopere curandum vobis est, dilectissimi, ut inmensas Deo gratias iugiter referatis, qui videlicet hoc tempore de mundo estis electi, quo constat in eo quempiam difficile posse salvari. Implestis enim, quod per Zachariam Domino vociferante precipitur…ita vos Christus de ore cruenti predonis eripuit, dum pereunte mundo in obsequium vos sui famulatus allegit.’
14. Cowdrey, xiv.
15. Cowdrey, XIV. Gregory the Great was so inspired by St Benedict that he devoted the second Book of his Dialogues to this monastic figure and his Rule. Cf. Dialogorum Libri IV de miraculis partum italicorum, ed, with intro. CitationA. de Vogüé (Sources Chrétiennes, 251, 260, 265). Cf. CitationMarkus, R.A. Gregory the Great and His World, 69–70. Cambridge, 1997.
16. See Reindel, Briefe, 18.
17. Chronica Monasterii Casinensis, ed. CitationH. Hoffman, MGH SS 34, hereafter CMC, III. 444: ‘Non solem autem in edificiis, verum etiam in libris describendis operam Desiderius dare permaximam studuit. Codices namque nonnullos in hoc loco describi precepit, quorum nomina hec sunt….’ Cf. Newton, The Scriptorium, 22–3.
18. Cf. Newton, 376–7.
19. MS 458, f. 2–5v. Cf. ‘Lectio In Vigiliis Sancti Benedicti.’ Petrus Damiani, Sermones, ed. G. Lucchesi, Corpus Christianorum, LVII, 45–8. Brepols, 1983.
20. Cf. Newton, 224. Cf. S. Gregorius Magnus, Dialogi and Gregory the Great, Dialogues, reproduced most recently by the St Pachomius Library 1995: http://www.voskrese.info/spl/dia2.html accessed 13/12/06. Cf. Gregory the Great, Dialogues, trans. CitationO. Zimmerman. Washington, DC, 1959.
21. The ink on the Latin inscription is somewhat faded in places but reads ‘Seculi XI codex, et quamuis S. Petrus Damiani lib [n] epis Desiderio Abbati Casinensi Scribat: Politus es, qua mili[*] notarium mitteres, qui saltem ea, quae in te specialiter scripseram, in tui sumptuis pergamena transferret; non ideo tamen judico hunc codicem exaratum fuisse sub oculis eiusdem S. Petro Damiano anno circiter 1069.’
22. Newton, 377.
23. The VBR, MS 358, f. 154–164; Vita Dominic Loricatus, MS 358, f. 115–20.
24. The manuscript contains 218 folios although, unlike MS 358, the majority of the pages have only one column of text and 29 lines per page.
25. The header initial ‘D’ at the beginning of Letter 40 to Archbishop Henry of Ravenna is a typical example of the intricate header initials present in MS 358, which are often more than five lines large, f. 169v.
26. MS 358, f. 75.
27. Cf. especially line midway down the column of MS 358, f. 76 and a note in the middle margin between the two columns.
28. Cf. MS 359, especially from f. 134v onwards.
29. MS 358, “VITA ROMVALDI,” f. 104–14, “VITA Dnici LORICATI,” f. 115v onwards.
30. Cf. especially Letter 168 to Archbishop Alfanus of Salerno which contains nota marks ‘miraculu’ MS 359, f. 84–9v. Cf. Letter 106 to Abbot Desiderius which contains nota marks ‘Alleg’; MS 359, f. 115v–19 particularly 116v.
31. Cf. Resnick, Intro, Vol. 6, vii and Letters 152, 6. 7–14 and 153. 6. 15–71.
32. ibid., vii.
33. Howe, 332–3.
34. Howe, 333. Cf. CitationLeclercq, Saint Pierre Damien, 91. Rome, 1960. Peter Damian is not mentioned in the Montecassino Chronicle until 1064; Leo of Ostia wrote that he arrived there after a ‘devastating event’, see CMC, III, 386–7.
35. Howe, 335.
36. Howe, 335. On Desiderius” career: CMC, III, 364–9.
37. Letter 100, 3: 101–15.
38. Cowdrey, 2.
39. For a detailed discussion of the evidence for this visit see Howe, 338–9.
40. CMC, III, 386–7: ‘Cum enim fratres in ecclesia die quadam de more prime hore sollemnia agerent, subito celitus fulmen elapsum ipsum ebdomadarium sacerdotem, cui Manno erat vocabulum, honeste fame virum in choro stantem feriens extinxit, ceteros vero circumstantes velut examines ad terram prostravit. Novicium etiam quendam extra chorum stantem ante ipsam maiorem crucem percutiens occidit. In capitulo tabulas officiales excidit ipsumque tabularium ac si mortuum reddidit. Vultum imaginis abbatis Richerii in eodem capitulo in tabella depictum scidit ac porro deiecit et in plerisque monasterii locis percussit.’
41. Howe, 338–9.
42. CMC, III, 386–7: ‘Quamobrem consilio cum fratribus pater venerabilis habito ad iram Dei placandam statuit tunc per omnes menses primum sextam feriam communiter ab omnibus in abstinentia peragi ac discalciatis pedibus procedendo missam proinde specialiter celebrari nec non et omnibus per annum cotidianis diebus orationem pro fulgare ad missam publicam et ad psalmos speciales adiungi.’
43. Cf. Letter 50, 2: 77–117 and 161, De Laude Flagellorum, 4: 135–44.
44. Howe, 339.
45. Cf. n.73 and CMC, III, 386–7.
46. Howe, 338–9.
47. Howe, 338–9.
48. CMC, 386–7: ‘Porro autem dominus Petrus Damiani, cuius iam supra meminimus, ad hoc monasterium veniens, cum verbo pariter et exemplo ad Dei servitium ferventi zelo, quoscumque posset, accenderet, tandem consensu ac permissione domini abbatis a cuncta congregatione voluntaria oblatione in remissionem omnium peccatorum obtinuit…’
49. CMC, 386–7. ‘Multotiens vero Desiderio cogitanti et revelari sibi oranti, quidnam esse vellet, quod sic frequenter hunc locum predictum flagellum attereret, quadam nocte per visum Benedictus pater apparuit, eique inter alia de hoc sollicite percontanti nichil aliud quam diabolicas insidias et antiquam pro loco invidiam esse perdocuit….’
50. Letter 106, 3: 168–185.
51. MS 359, see especially f. 117 v–118.
52. Letter 106, 168: ‘Non ignorare te patior, venerande pater, quoniam Guidunculus ille, puer videlicet noster, acrem maeroris aculeum meis visceribus intulit, cum id, quod michi minatus es, per ordinem nuntiavit. Dixisse siquidem te retulit, quia nisi Cassinense monasterium, quod utique nobiliter regis, inviserem, orationem sancti loci, sit e vivente defungerer, non haberem.’
53. Cf. n. 86 and Letter 106, 168, 169: ‘Quae videlicet minae cum eas ad mentem revoco, non ut acus pungent, sed conti potius more vel spiculi viscera nostra transfodiunt….’
54. MS 359, f. 115v–119.
55. Letter 106, 3. 169: Geminae siquidem necessitates undique coartor obstaculis. Nam et propinqui obitus me reddit aetas matura suspectum, et tot sanctorum oratione fraudari non leve periculum. Veniens Itaque medullitus pertimesco, ne dum monasterium quaero, extra monasterium moriar. Mors enim licet aliis sit incerta, proculdubio tamen senibus est propinqua.’
56. Letter 106, 169: ‘Non veniens autem nichilominus paveo, ne si fratribus, quibus intersum, inseparabiliter haeream, uberioris et incomparabiliter sanctioris auxilium conventus amittam. In utriusque igitur periculi meditullio constitutus, quid mihi potius sit agendum, ad liquidium non discerno, dum e duobus quicquid elegero, suspicionis ambiguae laqueum non evado.’
57. Letter 106, 170: ‘Sed cum quindecim fere dierum medium nos iter absentet, par fuerat, ut, quod seni praecipis, ipse prior experireris, virens scilicet etate, praevalidus robore; insuper adde, quia et abundas vehiculis et constipantium ministrorum vallaris obsequiis.’
58. Letter 106, 170–1: ‘Age igitur et ipse quae praecipis, et iuvenis ad senem propera, qui senem, ut ad te gradiatur, invitas. Verumtamen ut nunc serio loquar, si per tam longinqui itineris ductum beati Benedicti patris nostri limen attingere licuisset, ego non parvae mercedis cumulum deputarem. Et certum teneo, quia si in illius peregrinationis itinere me obire contingeret, non tam proprii reatus me gravaret exicium, quam illius attolleret dignitas meritorum.’
59. Letter 106, 171. Cf. Letter 49, 2. 62–77.
60. MS 359, f. 116v.
61. Letter 106, 172: ‘Ait enim, quia vassus quidam Burgundio genere, Anniciensis episcopatus aecclesiam beatae Dei genitricis semperque virginis insigni titulo decoratam, quae vocatur in Podio, orationis gradia devotus adiit, et peractis orationibus ac devotione completa redire coepit ad propria….’
62. Letter 106, 172: ‘Cumque fusis ad Deum precibus more fumi vento perflati daemones evanuissent, ille terrore deposito et securitatis animatus audacia, quod sibi in occulto contigit, publice coram omnibus enarravit.’
63. Letter 106, 172: ‘Egredienti, inquit, mihi de corpore, duo protinus angeli splendidae claritatis occurrunt, qui me secum ducere in superiora coeperunt.’
64. Letter 153, 4: 13–67 here 15: ‘Quapropter, karissimi, in vires vos Christo auxiliante colligite, eiusque militiam, in cuius arma iurastis, non segniter, non enerviter, sed fervide potius ac viriliter baiulate, ut rudimenta conversationis vestrae, quae adhuc in quodam meditullio posita sunt, non ad nichilum, quod absit, per neglegentiam redeant, sed per continui fervoris instantiam ad perfectionis culmen excrescant.’
65. Letter 153, 11: ‘Sicut ergo beatus Paulus magis optat agamiam quam monogamiam vel digamiam, ne tamen fragiles quique labantur in pelices, concedit uxores, ita nimirum sanctus Benedictus, quamquam propensius velit nos esse quod erat, hoc est heremi sectatores, tolerabilius tamen ducit nos infirmos ac debiles in Monasterii portu vel ignobiliter vivere, quam in tempestuosa naufragi mundi voragine deperire…’ Cf. Letter 152, 12. The letter to Abbot J was copied in MS 358, f. 140v–141v.
66. MS 358, f. 75–84v.
67. MS 358, f. 191–191v, 106v–107, 118–121 and 141v–142.
68. The Letter to Leo of Sitria also contains gold writing, especially the intricate header initial ‘D’, which is filled with gold writing, MS 358, f. 106v.
69. MS 358, gold headings exist from f. 75v–76v.
70. Newton, 214.
71. Letter 86, 2: 549–604.
72. Letter 86, 461.
73. Letter 86, 461: ‘Cum ergo vos omnipotens Deus mundo subtraxit ac sub monastica sibi disciplina servire constituit, quid aliud fecisse cernitur, quam velut olim in cataclismo de multis pereuntibus vos paucos elegit, ac in bituminatae arcae latibulum, ut viveretis.’
74. Cf. Cassiodorus, Institutions, M. Vessey, 5. Cf. CitationO'Donnell, J.J. Cassiodorus. Berkeley, 1995.
75. CitationReynolds, L.D., and N. G. Wilson. Scribes and Scholars: A Guide to the Transmission of Greek and Latin Literature, 72–3. 3rd edn. Oxford, 1991.
76. Letter 86, 462: ‘Claustrum quippe Monasterii vivarium est animarum. Ibi quippe vivunt pisces, qui iuxta legis edicta pennulas habent, atque ut in corpus Christi transferantur….’
77. Reynolds and Wilson, 72.
78. Letter 86, 462: ‘Quid ergo pennatis piscibus nisi electae animae figurantur, quae profecto solae in caelestis aecclesiae corpus transeunt, quia modo virtutum pennulis fultae saltus dare per celeste desiderium sciunt, ut superna per contemplationem appetent, quamvis in semetipsas iterum ex mortali carne relabantur?’
79. Letter 86, 462: ‘Sed ut liquido cernitur universa haec tria vocabula claustro monasterii proculdubio congruent, dum in eo unanimis et indivisae caritatis igne conflate spiritalium animalium diversitas continetur.’
80. Letter 86, 464: ‘Sed ut liquidius valeat elucere, quod loquimur, non gravemur aliquas hic animalium naturas apponere, et qualiter humanis congruent moribus, strictim ac prout epistolaris brevitas patitur, breviter intimare.’
81. MS 359, f. 107v–114v.
82. The headers begin on f. 107v starting with the word ‘Quod…’.
83. MS 359, f. 108.
84. Ink fades from f. 110 onwards. Scribe begins to fit more words on a line f. 114v.
85. Letter 86, 465: ‘Leo itaque cum sit fortissimos bestiarum, ac scriptura teste nullius pavescat occursum, videtur etiam naturalis habere quodammodo suptilitatis ingenium. Nam cum a venatoribus quaeritur, eorum protinus hodore concaepto ut persequentium se deludat indaginem, versute struit fraudulentiae novitatem.’
86. Letter 86, 466: ‘Hic etiam vestigia sua cauda, quae postrema pars est corporis, operit, quia vitae veteris pravitatem tegmine novae conversationis abscondit.’
87. Cf. above, 444–5.
88. Cf. above, 466: ‘Adde, quia leo apertis oculis dormit, et tu sic quiesce sopitus a mundo, ut pervigiles semper oculos habere perseveres in Deo…’ Cf. Letter 28, 1. 249–278; Letter 109, 3. 201–23 and Letter 110, 3. 223–46.
89. MS 358, f. 118.
90. Cf. MS 358, especially f. 119v and 120.
91. MS 359, f. 19v.–31v.
92. Letter 119, 3: 341–384, 341.
93. Letter 119, 3, 341. Cf. Howe, 338–9; CitationResnick, I.M. Divine Power and Possibility in Peter Damian's De Divina Omnipotentia. Leiden, 1992; CitationMcArthur, R.P., and M. P. Slattery. ”Peter Damian and Undoing the Past.” Philosophical Studies 25 (1974): 137–41 and CitationBrinton, A. “Omnipotence, Timelessness and the Restoration of Virgins.” Dialogos 45 (1985): 149–56.
94. MS 359, f. 19v.
95. Cf. especially MS 359, f. 20–20v.
96. Newton, 215.
97. My research has identified five, possibly six, letters to Desiderius, Alberic and the community at Montecassino in MS 359. They are Letters 86, f. 107v–114v; 106, f. 115v–116; 119, f. 19v–31v; 127, f. 179v. Some letters remain unidentifiable because of the poor quality of the surviving vellum towards the latter end of the manuscript, especially f. 133v onwards.
98. Letter 119, 342: ‘Errat, pater, errat, qui confidit se simul et monachum esse et curiae deservire. Quam male mercatur, qui monachorum praesumit claustra deserere, ut mundi valeat militiam baiulare.’
99. Letter 119, 342–3. Cf. Letter 44, 2. 7–33.
100. Letter 119, 343.
101. Letter 119, 343.
102. Letter 119, 343.
103. Letter 119, 343–4.
104. Letter 119, 349.
105. Letter 119, 349.