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I. Studies—Études

Ethnic minorities and the eugenic promise: the Transylvanian Saxon experiment with national renewal in inter-war Romania

Pages 861-880 | Received 03 May 2010, Accepted 09 Jul 2010, Published online: 18 Jan 2011
 

Abstract

The history of inter-war European eugenic movements overwhelmingly focuses on projects proposed by nation-states, and in doing so frequently overlooks the possibility of ethnic minorities pursuing independent, or even competing, nation (re-)building agendas. This article explores how the German Transylvanian Saxon minority perceived, appropriated, and ultimately pursued the eugenic promise of a healthier, purer, nation in inter-war Romania. It explores the life and work of two of the discourse's leading figures, namely Heinrich Siegmund and Alfred Csallner, before turning to eugenic policy of awarding substantial ‘honorary gifts’ for supposedly eugenically valuable children pursued by Fritz Fabritius' Fascist Self-Help movement after 1933.

The analysis of Saxon eugenics offered here wants to be understood as both a case study and a stepping stone, an opportunity to compare and contrast it with those potentially advanced by other ethnic minorities, and to thereby rethink the relationship between eugenics and ethnic minorities more widely. Therefore, to augment historiography's perception of eugenics as a state-wielded tool of victimisation and assimilation with another perspective, namely that of how and why a biological understanding of identity was ideally suited to an ethnic minority striving towards empowerment and re-homogenisation – towards a ‘eugenic fortress’.

Notes

 1. CitationLivezeanu, Cultural Politics in Greater Romania, 7.

 2. Livezeanu, Cultural Politics in Greater Romania, 7; CitationGündisch and Beer, Siebenbürgen und die Siebenbürger Sachsen, 2005.

 3. For an overview of the Church's inter-war history, see: CitationBöhm and Braegs, Dr. Viktor Glondys; and CitationWien, Kirchenleitung über dem Abgrund.

 4. For an excellent case study of the Banat town of Marienfeld see CitationMaria Teschler-Nicola's outstanding ‘Volksdeutsche and Racial Anthropology in Interwar Vienna: The “Marienfeld Project”.’ CitationTurda and Weindling, ‘Blood and Homeland,’ 55–82.

 5. Valuable inroads having been made by: CitationLiebig, ‘Siebenbürger Sächsinnen zur Zeit des Nationalsozialismus,’ 57–76; and CitationGabel, ‘“Wir wollen frei sein, um zu dienen”: Der “Freie sächsische Frauenbund” von seinen Anfängen bis 1933,’ 67–78.

 6. Although offering little on the history of Saxon eugenics specifically, see: CitationKillyen, ‘Zur Geschichte des Siebenbürgisch-Sächsischen Ärztevereinwesens (1887–1944),’ 27–65; CitationKillyen, ‘Der Einfluss der Sexualwissenschaft auf das Weltbild der siebenbürgisch-sächsischen Ärzteschaft,’ 165–8; and CitationOffner, ‘Zur Geschichte des siebenbürgisch-ungarischen Ärztevereinwesens,’ 23–34.

 7. See, for example: CitationWeindling, Health, Race and German Politics between National Unification and Nazism 1870–1945; CitationWeiss, Race, Hygiene and National Efficiency: The Eugenics of Wilhelm Schallmayer; CitationBurleigh and Wippermann, The Racial State: Germany 1933–1945.

 8. See CitationTurda, Modernism and Eugenics.

 9. CitationBucur, Eugenics and Modernisation in Interwar Romania.

10. Turda and Weindling, ‘Blood and Homeland.’ Of CitationMarius Turda's seminal publications on Romanian eugenics, see in particular: ‘“To End the Degeneration of a Nation”: Debates on Eugenic Sterilization in Interwar Romania.’

11. A particularly valuable study is offered by CitationCiobanu, Contributii la cunosterea istoriei sasilor transilvanei 1918–1944.

12. A recent missed opportunity being: CitationPopa, ‘Deutsche Forschung im Südosten.’ Haar and Fahlbusch, Handbuch der völkischen Wissenschaften, 112–6. Popa's welcome contribution on the Research Institute of the German National Community in Romania (Forschungsinstitut der Deutschen Volksgruppe in Rumänien, or FDV) founded in 1941, regrettably does not contextualise this important organisation, nor does the alternative interpretation negating it had any ideological and political content offered by CitationRoth in ‘Wissenschaft zwischen Nationalsozialismus und Stalinismus,’ 123–33. Ironically though, both use the same source – namely the Institute's journal.

13. CitationBöhm, Das Nationalsozialistische Deutschland und die deutsche Volksgruppe in Rumänien, 1936–1944; Die Deutschen in Rumänien und die Weimarer Republik, Citation 1919 –1933; Die Deutschen in Rumänien und das Dritte Reich, Citation 1933 –1940; Die Gleichschaltung der deutschen Volksgruppe in Rumänien und das ‘Dritte Reich’, Citation 1941 –1944; and Hitlers Vasallen der Deutschen Volksgruppe in Rumänien vor und nach Citation 1945 .

14. CitationReinert and Cloos, Zur Geschichte der Deutschen in Rumänien 1935–1945: Citation Beiträge und Berichte; Zur politischen Entwicklung der Deutschen in Rumänien 1918–1928: Aus einer siebenbürgisch-sächsischen Sicht.

15. CitationMiege, Das Dritte Reich und die Deutsche Volksgruppe in Rumänien 1933–38: Ein Beitrag zur nationalsozialistischen Volkstumspolitik.

17. Roth, Politische Strukturen, 177, 219.

18. Böhm, Hitlers Vasallen, 1: ‘A large proportion of the Germans in Romania became National Socialists […] That they deny their responsibility following the defeat of 1944/45 and acted as if they had been only been innocent victims, is to ridicule historical facts.’

19. CitationGriffin, The Nature of Fascism.

20. CitationGriffin, Modernism and Fascism.

21. Griffin, Modernism and Fascism, 181.

22. , 53.

23. Amongst the sparse secondary literature, see: CitationBehrwerth, ‘Dr. Heinrich Siegmund,’ 104–8; CitationWagner, ‘Heinrich Sigmund und die “Volksbiologische” Forschung in der Zwischenkriegszeit,’ 177–86; and CitationLinger, ‘Sitte, Moral und Volksreinheit bei Heinrich Siegmund,’ 169–72. Several invaluable biographies were published by Siegmund's close associates after his death, the most insightful being: CitationRehner, Dem Andenken Dr. Heinrich Siegmunds weiland Grosstemplers von Rumäniens Grosslaube 2 (deutsch) des I.O.G.T. But also see the biography and partial bibliography offered by Julius Ernst Gyurgyevich, who took over Siegmund's ‘Welfare Exhibit’ in 1937 and was also a leading figure in the ‘national Neighbourhoods’: Gyurgyevich, ‘CitationVorarbeiten zu einem Schriftenverzeichnis des Landeskonsistorialrats Dr. med. Heinrich Siegmund,’ 5–26; and ‘CitationAus gesegneter Ernte: Zum schriftstellerischen Schaffen des Dr. Heinrich Siegmund,’ 31 ff. More recently, and incorporating an overview of the Self-Help, also see: CitationDavis, ‘Maintaining a “German” Home in Southeast Europe: Transylvanian Saxon nationalism and the metropolitan model of the family, 1918–1933,’ 386–401.

24. CitationSiegmund, Deutschen-Dämmerung in Siebenbürgen.

25. Ploetz left it to Siegmund to decide whether he preferred the German or international branch, but it is currently unclear which one Siegmund ultimately choose.

26. Siegmund, Englisch, and Schuster, Sächsisches Wehr und Mehrbuch: Ein Volksbuch; and Siegmund, Sächsisches Wehr und Mehrbuch: Ein Volksbuch.

27. CitationCsallner, Haben wirklich die armen Bauern weniger und die reichen mehr Kinder: Sind unsere Gemeinden wirklich überbevölkert?

28. Csallner also published a remarkable overview of Saxon eugenics (including, as he called it, a much needed ‘memorial’ for his mentor Siegmund) for a German audience in 1940: CitationCsallner, Die volksbiologische Forschung unter den Siebenbürger Sachsen und ihre Auswirkung auf das Leben diese Volksgruppe.

29. CitationCsallner, Meine wissenschaftlichen Arbeiten, 7; and Csallner, Die Volksbiologische Forschung, 77. In fact, Csallner enjoyed substantial financial assistance from Germany, receiving funding from the Deutsche and Südostdeutsche Forschungsgemeinschaften as well as the VDA.

30. CitationCsallner, ‘Die Grösste Gefahr: Ergebnisse einer erb- und gesellschaftsbiologischen Untersuchung über die Siebenbürger Sachsen,’ 257.

31. While virtually all of Csallner's texts discuss fertility and demographic trends at some point, the perhaps singularly most interesting article, and one of his first, is his tabulation of literally how many offspring the Saxons had ‘lost’: CitationCsallner, ‘Deutsche Verluste im Nösnerland,’ 48–59.

32. For example: CitationCsallner, ‘Unsere einzigen Kinder.’

34. See, in particular: CitationCsallner, ‘Zur Frage der Mischehe,’ 3–10; and his trilogy: ‘CitationDie Mischehen in den siebenbürgisch-sächsischen Städten und Märkten,’ 225–55; Auslandsdeutsche Volksforschung, 14–36; and Auslandsdeutsche Volksforschung, 227–60.

35. Csallner was, like Siegmund, also a high-ranking member of the International Order of Good Templars, and an example of his views on abstinence is afforded by: CitationCsallner, ‘Offener Brief an alle, die Führer sein wollen in unserem Volke,’ 2–4.

36. A characteristic example of his frequent appeals to ordinary Saxons to become involved with racial research is: CitationCsallner, ‘Laien in die volksbiologische Forschung!’ 139.

37. For an example of the VdK's agenda and policy ambitions see: CitationCsallner, et al. Denkschrift des ‘Vereins der Kinderfrohen.’

38. CitationCsallner, ‘Zur Errichtung des Rassenamtes der “Selbsthilfe”,’ 4.

39. The results of which were published as: Csallner, [Institut für Statistik und Bevölkerungspolitik]. Die deutschen Siedlungen in Rumänien nach der Bestandsaufnahme vom Citation 3. November 1940.

40. It is interesting to note that Csallner later claimed that, in early 1944, he was offered the opportunity of applying his LSS template towards founding a new, larger, institute in Prague, complete with a lecturing post at the Karl-University (Csallner, Meine wissenschaftlichen Arbeiten, 26 ff.). It would be remarkable if this claim, and the presumed involvement of the ‘Race and Settlement Main Office’ (RuSHA), were substantiated by further research.

41. CitationGlass, Zerbrochene Nachbarschaft: das deutsch-judische Verhaltnis in Rumanien, 1918–1938, 323 ff.

42. ‘Volksgenossen,’ 4.

43. ‘CitationBisher geleistete Arbeit,’ 2. See also: CitationFabritius, ‘Welche Arbeiten hat die Selbsthilfe bisher geleistet?’ 5; and ‘CitationDie Arbeit die unsere Vereinigung leistet,’ 1–3. See also: CitationSchunn, Weg und Feinde der NEDR, 13.

44. For the 15-paragraph-long guidelines for Self-Help loans from the Hermannstat ‘Business- and Merchant Bank’ (Hermannstädter Gewerbe- und Handelsbank AG) see: CitationFabritius, ‘Baugenossenschaft: Teil I,’ 2; and Fabritius, ‘Baugenossenschaft: Teil II,’ 1 ff. In 1928 the Self-Help transformed itself into a ‘legal body’ by founding the ‘“Self-Help” Company for the Mediation and Financing of Real Estate Fr. Fabritius & Co. limited partnership in Hermannstadt’ (‘Selbsthilfe’, Unternehmung zur Vermittlung und Finanzierung von Immobilien Fr. Fabritius & Co, Kommanditgesellschaft in Hermannstadt).

45. CitationDolle, ‘Unser Ziel,’ 1.

46. CitationJickeli, Unser Weg zur Erneuerung des deutschen Volkes in Rumänien, 4.

47. Schunn, Weg und Feinde der NEDR, 11.

48. CitationFabritius, ‘Heimaterde,’ 1.

49. Namely all files belonging to: The ‘Association of Germans in Romania’ (Comunitatea Germanilor din Romania, or CGR), inventory D. XIII on ‘National Neighbourhoods’ (Oficiul Pentru Vecinatati), which is itself subdivided into two blocks: The ‘Central Office’ (Officiul Central) and the ‘Sibiu Neighbourhoods’ (Vecinate Sibiu).

50. The bulk of the literature on the Neighbourhoods was written by Hans-Achim Schubert and dates back to the 1970s, while his key interests mostly lie with their pre-1933 models: CitationSchubert, Nachbarschaft: Entfremdung und Protest; and Citation Nachbarschaft und Modernisierung . Schubert also published the following chapter offering an enthusiastic overview of Schunn's achievements while avoiding their eugenic impetuses save a short mention of the ‘honorary gifts’ on p. 174: ‘CitationWilhelm Schunn's “Völkische” Nachbarschaften – Wunsch und Wirklichkeit,’ 169–82. An interesting article on the Neighbourhoods is offered by the sociologist Georg Weber's three-pronged analysis of changes to their ‘form and function’ in pre-1939 Transylvania, post-1953 Germany, and 1980s Romania: CitationWeber, ‘Zum Struktur- und Funktionswandel der siebenbürgisch-sächsischen Nachbarschaft in Rumänien und Westdeutschland: Eingrenzung, Begriffe, Institutionen,’ 131–61.

51. For a short overview of historic ‘Neighbourhood Rules and Regulations’ dating from the seventeenth century onwards, as presented by one of Schunn's contemporaries, see: CitationOrend, ‘Siebenbürgisch-sächsische Nachbarschaftsordnungen,’ 139–50.

52. CitationSchunn, ‘Der Start zu einem Hohen Ziel: Bericht des Beauftragten für den volksorganischen Aufbau,’ 48.

53. See: CitationSchunn, Die Nachbarschaften der Deutschen in Rumänien.

54. Schunn, ‘Der Start zu einem hohen Ziel,’ 48.

55. CitationSchunn and Pastior, Die Ehrung des Kinderreichtums bei den Deutschen in Rumänien, 44.

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