Between diplomacy and solidarity: Western European support networks for Sandinista Nicaragua

Abstract

Between the 1960s and 1980s, political crises in the Third World became a source of inspiration and action in Western European societies. The Sandinista revolution in Nicaragua was one of the most famous instigators of transnational activism. All over Western Europe, locally organised committees staged public actions, collected funds and educated their societies about the plight of this Central American nation, whose Marxist government faced strong international opposition from the Reagan administration as well as domestic social, political and economic turbulence. This article looks at Third World solidarity activism from a new perspective, assessing the active role of the Sandinista Liberation Front (FSLN) in the emergence and development of activism in Western Europe. It argues that FSLN diplomacy – initially by exiles and later by official diplomats – initiated the creation of transnational networks, driven by the quest for international support. They fuelled activism by providing activists with fresh information, contacts and avenues for action, but also cemented cross-border co-operation between activists and stimulated a ‘Europeanisation’ of local activism.

Keywords::

• Third World solidarity movements
• public diplomacy
• Nicaragua
• 1980s
• transnational networks
• exiles

Notes

^1.Kalter, “A Shared Space.”

^2.Zimmermann, Sandinista, 69–87.

^3.Westad, The Global Cold War, 339ff.

^4.Brentlinger, The Best of What We Are.

^5.Weber, Visions of Solidarity; Peace, A Call to Conscience, 174–5.

^6. Harzer and Volks, Aufbruch nach Nicaragua.

^7.Thörn, Anti-Apartheid; Elbaum, “What Legacy;” Gildea, Mark, and Pas, “European Radicals.”

^8.Rucht, “Distant Issue Movements.”

^9.Slobodian, Foreign Front, 6–12; Christiaens, Rodríguez García, and Goddeeris, “A Global Perspective.”

^10.Keck and Sikkink, Activists Beyond Borders; DeMars, NGOs and Transnational Networks; Bustamante and Sweig, “Buena Vista Solidarity;” Connelly, A Diplomatic Revolution; Brigham, Guerilla Diplomacy.

^11.Smith, “Revolutionary Diplomacy;” Perla, “Si Nicaragua vencio;” Perla, “The FSLN and International Solidarity.”

^12. Overview of the committees, 1978, European Secretariat of the European Nicaragua Movement, Private Archives Klaas Wellinga and Hans Langenberg, Utrecht, (henceforth ESEN).

^13. Weber, Visions of Solidarity, 32.

^14.Stoff, Die sandinistische Revolution, 14.

^15.Hammes, The Sling, 85.

^16.Cardenal, La Révolution, 51 and 119.

^17.Radu, “Revolutionary Elites,” 115; Hans Hübner et al., Enrique Presente.

^18.Close and Martí i Puig, “The Sandinistas,” 3; Miranda and Ratliff, The Civil War, 83.

^19.Hübner et al., Enrique Presente.

^20.Christiaens, Rodríguez García, and Goddeeris, “A Global Perspective,” 18–19; Kelly, “The 1973 Chilean Coup.”

^21. “Primer Encuentro Europeo (Madrid),” 29 September–1 October 1978, no. 72, Archives Dutch Nicaragua Committee (DNC), International Institute of Social History (IISH), Amsterdam.

^22.Christiaens, “States Going Transnational.”

^23. Klaas Wellinga and Hans Langenberg in discussion with the author, Louvain, 24 November 2010.

^24.Hite, When the Romance Ended, 47–9.

^25.Figueroa Clark, “Nicaragua.”

^26. The National Nicaragua Coordination in France, September 1979, ESEN.

^27.Christiaens, Rodríguez García, Goddeeris, “A Global Perspective,” 32.

^28.Agee, Dirty Work.

^29.Wright and Zúñiga, “Chilean Political Exile,” 31–49.

^30.Lucas, “Die Solidarität,” 56–7.

^31. Klaas Wellinga and Hans Langenberg in discussion with the author, 24 November 2010.

^32. Conference in Driebergen (Utrecht), 1979, File Utrecht, ESEN.

^33. “Actas del Encuentro de Comités de Nicaragua,” 30 March–1 April 1979, File Utrecht, ESEN.

^34. El País, 15 September 1978.

^35. Letter from Klaas Wellinga and Hermann Schulz, 1979, no. 2, ESEN.

^36.Ziemann ed., Peace Movements.

^37. European Conference in Madrid, 1 October 1978, no. 72, DNC.

^38. Solidaridad. Maandelijks Tijdschrift Latijns-Amerika, 15 September 1979, 3.

^39. George Black to the European Secretariat, 16 January 1980, File International Secretariat, no. 2, ESEN.

^40. “Adhesiones Recibidas. Francia” and CGT to the French Nicaragua Coordination, 25 July 1979, ESEN.

^41. Nicaragua Committee Ghent, 18 March 1980, no. 119, Archives Jules Verhelst (JV), Center of Communist Archives in Belgium (DACOB), Brussels; Letter from Ariel Granera, 4 March 1980, Archives CEAL, OXFAM-Belgium, Brussels; Links. Weekblad voor een Strijdend Socialisme, 22 March 1980, 4–5.

^42. “Reunion Nicaragua Herdecke,” 18–30 September 1979, ESEN.

^43. Solidariteitscomité Nicaragua Antwerpen, SAGO & de ambassade van Nicaragua, Vrij Nicaragua. 1980 Jaar van de Alfabetisering, Antwerp, 1980.

^44. Barricada internacional. Órgano de difusión para el exterior del Frente Sandinista de Liberación Nacional, 5 July 1981.

^45. British Solidarity Campaign with Nicaragua, 1989, no. 72, DNC.

^46. See for instance: “Comités belgas de solidaridad con Nicaragua,” 1981, 1–2, no. 17, DNC.

^47. Letter from Ted Van Hees and Hans Langenberg, 11 June 1980, no. 17, DNC.

^48. Report of the Belgian committees, 1982, no. 18, DNC.

^49.Allison and Martín Alvarez, “Unity;” Latré, Strijd en Inkeer, 376ff.

^50. Vienna Conference, 15 June 1980, no. 17, DNC.

^51.Borge, Los primeros pasos, 156ff.

^52. La Dirección Nacional en el Primer Encuentro Internacional de Solidaridad con Nicaragua. “El Salvador vencerá”! Managua: Departamento de Propaganda y Educación Política del FSLN, 1981; First International Meeting of Solidarity with Nicaragua, 1981, no. 72, DNC; El Día, 27 January 1981.

^53. Report of the Managua Conference by a Dutch participant, 1981, no. 17, DNC.

^54. European Nicaragua Meeting in Genève, October 1981, no. 72, DNC, 11.

^55.Christiaens, “Making Solidarity Effective,” 187ff.

^56. 6th European Conference in Geneva, 6–9 November 1981, no. 18, DNC.

^57. See for instance: De Groene Amsterdammer, 28 January 1981, 12.

^58. Report on the activities by the British NSC, April 1981, no. 72, DNC.

^59. Solidaridad, no. 112, 1981, 8.

^60. Anti-Intervention Campaign, 28 April 1982, no. 18, DNC.

^61. “Frente Anti-Intervención en America Central,” October 1981, no. 72, DNC.

^62. “El Papel de la Communidad Europea,” 1988, no. 145, DNC.

^63.Prevost, “Cuba and Nicaragua,” 127.

^64.Couffignal, “France,” 99.

^65.Amnesty International, Nicaragua; Pedrosa “Políticas informales,” 52–3.

^66. International Trade Union News. International Confederation of Free Trade Unions, no. 13, 1 September 1984, 7.

^67.Mujal-Léon, “El socialismo europeo.”

^68.Peace, A Call to Conscience, 165.

^69.Peace, A Call to Conscience, 157; 10th European congress of solidarity committees, 23–25 November 1984, no. 18, DNC.

^70. “Project Office Nicaragua,” 24 April 1985, p. 1, ESEN.

^71. Speech by Francisco de Asís Fernández, 6 October 1984, no. 124, Archives Central America Committee (CAC), Amsab-ISG, Ghent.

^72. Relations between the European Nicaragua Committees and the FSLN, April 1984, no. 18, DNC.

^73. History of the British Solidarity Campaign, 1989, no. 146, DNC; 10th European conference, 23–25 November 1984, no. 18, DNC.

^74.Smith, “Revolutionary Diplomacy,” 69.

^75.Peace, “Peace Movements,” 14.

^76.Peace, A Call to Conscience, 108–9; Lucas, “Die Solidarität,” 59.

^77. Circular from the Barricada Internacional Delegation in Madrid, 15 November 1987, no. 18, DNC.

^78. National Nicaragua Coordination, 10 October 1984, no. 124, CAC, Amsab-ISG, Ghent.

^79. Report of the European Coordination, 1 February 1986, no. 18, DNC.

^80.Rucht, “Distant Issue Movements;” Goddeeris, “Solidarity,” 8ff.

^81.Kalter, “A Shared Space.”

^82.Nehring and Ziemann, “Do all Paths Lead to Moscow,” 4ff.

^83.Bob, The Marketing of Rebellion.

^84.Christiaens and Goddeeris, “The East Versus the South,” 195–6.

Additional information

Notes on contributors

Kim Christiaens

Kim Christiaens is a post-doctoral fellow of the Research Foundation Flanders (FWO-Vlaanderen) at Leuven University (Flanders), and is a senior member of the Leuven Centre for Global Governance Studies. His research focuses on international solidarity movements during the Cold War, public diplomacy, human rights, and East-West and North-South entanglements in Europe. He has recently published in, among others, Journal of Contemporary History, Vingtième Siècle, and Dzieje Najnowsze. He is co-editor of the volumes The Transnationality of Social Movements, 1970–2010 and European Solidarity with Chile, 1970s–1980s (Peter Lang, 2014). He teaches the graduate course Cold War History at Leuven University.