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Abstract
After the liberation of the Second World War, the governing parties in both Belgium and The Netherlands agreed that it was necessary to punish the collaborators. But the notion that the large majority had to be ‘re-educated’ for social reintegration also very soon prevailed in both countries. Collaborators had to be ‘cured’ to become full democratic national citizens again, and their punishment was designed to achieve this. Although in the last few decades the research scope of transitional justice has developed greatly and has contributed to an ever more nuanced picture of the punishment of collaboration in the post-war period, the question of to what extent prisons were used as places to ‘improve’ enemies of the state during a regime change has largely been overlooked. But precisely by studying the execution of the punishment, underlying ideologies and interests are exposed, and we can see how well defined citizenship was. This paper, with the aid of the Dutch–Belgian comparison, considers how post-war re-education was approached in those countries and what this says about the meaning of imprisonment during regime changes.
Acknowledgements
I thank Ido de Haan for his critical remarks on an earlier draft of this article. This article is realised with the support of the IAP ‘Justice & Populations’ (PVII/22), Interuniversity Attraction Poles Programme – Belgian Science Policy.
Notes
1. On the Dutch NSB: Damsma, “Nazis in the Netherlands.”
2. On Flemish Nationalism during the Second World War: De Wever, Greep naar de macht.
3. On Rex: Conway, Collaboration in Belgium.
4. Struye and Jacquemyns, La Belgique sous l’Occupation allemande; Boom, “We leven nog.”
5. Belinfante, In plaats van bijltjesdag; Romijn, Snel, streng en rechtvaardig; Huyse et al., Onverwerkt verleden; Huyse, “Belgian and Dutch Purges,” 164–78.
6. Elster, Retribution and Reparation, 51.
7. Deák et al., The Politics of Retribution; Elster, Closing the Books.
8. Wouters, Transitional Justice and Memory.
9. For example: Greiner, Suppressed Terror; Morina, “An Experiment in Political Education,” 79–103; Taylor, Exorcising Hitler.
10. Conway, The Sorrows of Belgium, 244.
11. Lagrou, The Legacy of the Nazi Past.
12. Heinrich, Particuliere reintegration, 159–70.
13. Romijn, Snel, streng en rechtvaardig, 187, 190–1.
14. Letter from B. ter Veer to the campcommandors, 29 April 1946, Directoraat-Generaal voor de Bijzondere Rechtspleging (DGBR) 1945–1952, 02.09.08, 18, NA The Hague [National Archives of the Netherlands, The Hague].
15. Verslag der werkzaamheden, 34–5.
16. Romijn, Snel, streng en rechtvaardig, 179.
17. Minutes of the Belgian Ministry of Justice, 7 Sep. 1945.
18. Schandevyl, “Intellectuele geschiedenis,” 307.
19. De Vreught, “De leidende beginselen,” 158.
20. Idem.
21. In Belgium, the military courts applied the death penalty 242 times. In the Netherlands, the death penalty was applied 39 times.
22. Letter from W. Hanssens to the director of the CPM Beverloo, 22 July 1949, Dienst Wedervoeding Reintegration en Voogdij (DWRV), 13, SA Brussels [State Archives of Belgium, Brussels].
23. Duynstee, “Het problem der politieke delinquenten.”
24. Speech by Toornstra, 2 July 1947, DGBR, 1336, NA The Hague.
25. François, Guerres et délinquance juvénile, 368; Cox, “Tewerkstelling extra-muros,” 75–6; Hanssens, “La rééducation des inciviques,” 141–79, esp. 151.
26. Report by the reintegration inspector, 24 Feb. 1947, DGBR, 1336, NA The Hague.
27. De Vreught, “De leidende beginselen,” 157.
28. Nys et al., De zieke natie; Tollebeek, et al., Degeneratie in België.
29. Transcript, radio broadcast by F. Hollander, “Al weer over: die politieke delinquenten!”, 18 July 1946, Stichting Toezicht Politieke Delinquenten, 2.09.42.01 (STPD), 1654, NA The Hague.
30. Transcript, radio broadcast by Jaap le Poole, “Overheid en nazorg van politieke delinquenten,” 18 Sep. 1946, STPD, 1654, NA The Hague.
31. Stouten, Naar verkeerd spoor, 30.
32. Hanssens, “La rééducation des inciviques,” 141–79.
33. Annales parlementaires. Chambre, 231, Report by Henri Lambotte, Tweede deel, wederopleiding en herclassering van de incivieken, 17 Oct. 1946, 16.
34. Hanssens, “La rééducation,” 148–51.
35. Tulkens, ed., Généalogie de la défense sociale; Dercksen and Verplanke, Geschiedenis van de onmaatschappelijkheidsbestrijding.
36. Tames, Besmette jeugd.
37. Verslag der werkzaamheden, 36.
38. According to Ido de Haan, in the immediate post-war France and the Netherlands, people looked back more to the crisis of the 1930s than to the German occupation: Haan, Politieke reconstructie, 19.
39. Pompe, Eenige aspecten, 15.
40. Luyckx, “De penitentiaire mijncentra,” 45.
41. Cited in: Annales parlementaires. Chambre, 231, Report by Henri Lambotte, Tweede deel, wederopleiding en herclassering van de incivieken, 17 Oct. 1946, 16.
42. Enning and Grevers, “Kollaboration als Pathologie?,” 165–88.
43. Noach, De bijzondere rechtspleging, 74; Belinfante, In plaats van bijltjesdag, 289–94.
44. Transcript, radio broadcast by Minister of Justice Albert Lilar, 16 Sep. 1946.
45. Idem.
46. See for example: Gonzalo, “Reeducation through Work?,” 97–116; De Vito, “Writing a Global History,” 285–325.
47. Statement on reeducation, 14 Oct. 1947, DWRV, 1, SA Brussels.
48. Minutes of the Belgian Ministry of Justice, 12 Oct. 1946.
49. Luyckx, “De penitentiaire mijncentra,” 35. See also: De Craene and Alexander, “Psychologie des condamnés,” 885–8.
50. Transcript, radio broadcast by W.P.J. Pompe, “De vrijlating der politieke delinquenten,” 15 Aug. 1946, STPD, 1654, NA The Hague.
51. Lecture by Prof. Duynstee, “Rehabilitatie der pol. delinquenten” gehouden te Utrecht voor de Nationale Federatie voor de Geestelijke Volksgezondheid, 11 March 1947, STPD, 1653, NA The Hague.
52. Transcript, radio broadcast by W.P.J. Pompe, “De vrijlating der politieke delinquenten,” 15 Aug. 1946, STPD, 1654, NA The Hague.
53. Toezicht, 4, June 1948, 37.
54. Letter from B. ter Veer to the campcommandors, 29 Apr. 1946, DGBR, 28, NA The Hague.
55. Programme, press visit to the camps in the mine area, 31 March – 1 April 1948, DGBR 1338, NA The Hague.
56. Vow camp Marum, s.d., Strafgevangenis, tevens Rijkswerkinrichting “Marum”, 2022–84. Groninger Archives.
57. Statement on reeducation, 14 Oct. 1947, DWRV, 1, SA Brussels.
58. Dercksen and Verplanke, Geschiedenis van de onmaatschappelijkheidsbestrijding, 73–4.
59. Report of the Permanent Committee on Private and Criminal Justice on Visits to Internment Camps for Political Delinquents, 7 May 1946 and 27 Oct. 1947, DGBR, 1339, NA The Hague.
60. Report of the Department III A, 1 Jan. 1946 until 1 May 1946, DGBR, 1334, NA The Hague.
61. Report social care camp Westvaart, 4 Aug. 1948, STPD, 1599, NA The Hague.
62. Toezicht, 9, Nov. 1948, 113–6.
63. Report on the Mission of a Group of Political Delinquents to New Guinea, 21 June 1946, 870, archive J.C. Woestenburg, NIOD Amsterdam [NIOD. Institute for War, Holocaust and Genocide Studies, Amsterdam].
64. De Standaard, “De arbeidsslaven in de Belgische kampen,” 19 Sep. 1948.
65. Conway, The Sorrows of Belgium, 370.
66. Luyckx, “De penitentiaire mijncentra,” 45.
67. Report on the Activities of the “Welfare,” 17 – 21 Feb. 1948, DWRV, 9, SA Brussels.
68. Minutes of the Belgian Ministry of Justice, 22 May 1947.
69. Minutes of the Belgian Ministry of Justice, 23 May 1947.
70. ‘t Gazetje van ‘t Kasteeltje, Bijblad bij Het Klein Kasteel, “Feestelijke overhandigingen der getuigschriften in het C.W.B.,” 11 Nov. 1949, DWRV, 273, SA Brussels.
71. Romijn, “Pastors and Perpetrators,” 373–87.
72. Romijn, Snel, streng en rechtvaardig, 192–3.
73. Report by Mr. Ch. Hanegraff on visiting Camp Wezep, 2 Aug. 1946, DGBR, 1375, NA The Hague.
74. Diary J., W.A., Diary collection, 248–0822, NIOD.
75. Letter from the Chaplain to G. De Vreught, 22 March 1947, DWRV, 17, SA Brussels.
76. Letter from Hanssens to rev. Houtsen, 1 Aug. 1947, DWRV, 17, SA Brussels.
77. Stouten, Naar verkeerd spoor, 28–9.
78. For example: “de Schuldvraag,” Uitzicht, 27, 28 Sep. 1946.
79. Letter from Dupréel to Hanssens, Aug. 1950, DWRV, 327, SA Brussels.
80. Kesteloot, “Waalse beweging,” 3635–51.
81. Letter from Board Secretary W. Vangeenberghe, 9 Dec. 1946, DWRV, 284, SA Brussels.
82. Idem.
83. Letter from Huygen (anonymous) to Gunning, 7 June 1946, Collection Bijzondere Rechtspleging, 270 A, NIOD, Amsterdam.
84. Letter from Gunning to his Parents, 7 June 1946, Collection Bijzondere Rechtspleging, 270 A, NIOD, Amsterdam.
85. Heijden, Grijs verleden, 352.
86. Tames, Besmette jeugd, 132–3.
87. “Des légionnaires écrivent,” Le Journal Sans Titre, 6, 3, 15 Sep. 1947, DWRV, SA Brussels.
88. Letters written by former Legion soldiers requesting pardon gave anti-Communism as the main reason for joining: Vanderlinden, “La réinsertion socio-professionnelle,” 210–1.
89. Report General Inspection DGBR, 9 Sep. 1947, 270 A, 5, NIOD, Amsterdam.
90. Letter from a Man to his Brother, 26 July 1948, DWRV, 67, SA Brussels.