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Articles–Articles

Rebranding the Republic: Rome and the 1960 Olympic Games

Pages 58-79 | Received 06 Aug 2015, Accepted 13 Jun 2016, Published online: 15 Aug 2016
 

Abstract

The 1960 Rome Olympic Games were held at a pivotal moment in the history of modern Italy and its capital. At the height of the ‘economic miracle’, tourists, international movie stars and entertainers, in addition to a record number of international athletes, flocked to the city to participate in the Games and the dolce vita. As a great ‘national’ project within a global and European context, Rome 1960 offered the organizers and ruling Christian Democratic Party (DC) the opportunity to rebrand Italy and show how far the country had come since the fall of Fascism and the end of the Second World War. While Rome 1960 was a marketing success – Italy’s international reputation was significantly enhanced – close examination of the preparations for the tournament, as well as the Games itself, reveals significant continuities, deep and unresolved political and social tensions, evidence of corruption, and a failure to come to terms with Italy’s recent past and the memory of Fascism. Questioning the extent to which the 1960 Olympics was a turning point in Italian sport and society, it exposes the Italy that existed beneath the sheen: one of stagnation, minimal change, political division and corruption.

Notes

1. Alemanno, “Rome Olympic City,” 15; Ciampicacigli, “The Italy of Fifty Years Ago,” 21; Ghirelli, “Legacy and Impact of the Games,” 26; Impiglia, L’Olimpiade dal volto umano; Brennan, “The 1960 Rome Olympics: Spaces and Spectacle,” 17.

2. See Guttmann, The Olympics; Tulli, Breve storia delle Olimpiadi, 71–7.

3. Maraniss, Rome 1960.

4. See Frasca and Lòriga, Roma olimpica; Telesca, “Sport, politica e affari.” On preparations for the Games and Italy’s international image see various foreign press reports in Archivio Centrale dello Stato (ACdS), Presidenza del Consiglio dei Ministri (PCM), 1955–8, 3-2-5, 10024-93, b.206, Comitato per la Stampa e Rassegna Stampa Estera.

5. Gualtiero Zanetti, “I nostri giochi,” La Gazzetta dello Sport, 5 September 1960.

6. Carraro, “The Olympic Games that Enchanted the World,” 13–14.

7. Andreotti, “Olimpiadi,” 3; “Arriverderci a Tokyo,” 3; Andreotti, “Da Olimpia a Roma,” 13.

8. Scimonelli, “A colloquio con Giulio Andreotti,” 10.

9. ACdS, PCM, 1955-58, 3-2-5, 10024-93.4, b.205, Comitato Olimpico Nazionale Italiano, “Pro-Memoria per la Presidenza del Consiglio dei Ministri, 12 September 1957,” 2.

10. ACdS, PCM, 1955-58, 3-2-5, 10024-93, b.203, Affari Generali, “Note informative riservata per S.E. Mario Scelba,” 20 December 1954, 3. On the propagandistic benefits for Italy see also Giulio Onesti’s address in ACdS, PCM, 1955-58, 3-2-5, 10024-93, b.203, Affari Generali, “Verbale della riunione del 25 July 1957,” 3–6.

11. ACdS, PCM, 1955-58, 3-2-5, 10024-93.3, b.204, “Riunione del 25.7.1957,” Comunicato stampa, 1.

12. ACdS, PCM, 1955-58, 3-2-5, 10024-93, b.206, Comitato per la Stampa e Rassegna Stampa Estera, “Letter from Giulio Onesti to Prime Minister Tambroni, 8 June 1960.”

13. ACdS, PCM, 1955-58, 3-2-5, 10024-93, b.203, Affari Generali, “Letter, Giulio Andreotti to Prime Minister, Minister for Foreign Affairs and Italian Ambassador in Paris,” 23 July 1955, 2.

14. ACdS, PCM, 1955-58, 3-2-5, 10024-93, b.205, Comune di Roma.

15. Among the variety of reading regarding the miracle see Crainz, Storia del miracolo italiano; Rolf Petri, “Dalla ricostruzione al miracolo economico” in Sabbatucci and Vidotto, Storia d’Italia 5, 313–440; Sassoon, Contemporary Italy; Ginsborg, A History of Contemporary Italy.

16. Sabbatucci and Vidotto, Storia d’Italia 5, 598–624.

17. ACdS, PCM, 1955-58, 3-2-5, 10024-93, b.205, Ministero dei Lavori Pubblici, “Opere ferroviarie e stradali a cura del Ministero dei Lavori Pubblici;” ACdS, PCM, 1955-58, 3-2-5, 10024-93, b.205, Commissariato per il Turismo, “Programmi e spese di carattere turistico per le Olimpiadi 1960;” ACdS, PCM, 1955-58, 3-2-5, 10024-93, b.205, Commissariato per il Turismo, “L’organizzazione turistica Italiana e le Olimpiadi 1960.”

18. See Zaslavsky, Lo Stalinismo e la sinistra italiana.

19. Colarizi, Storia dei partiti nell’Italia repubblicana, 841–2.

20. ACdS, PCM, 1955-58, 3-2-5, 10024-93.3, b.204, Comitato Interministeriale per le Olimpiadi del 1960, “Verbale della riunione del 25 July 1957,” 4.

21. Forcellese, L’Italia e I Giochi Olimpici, 231.

22. On Thaon di Revel, CONI, IOC and previous connections with the Fascist regime see Forcellese, L’Italia e I Giochi Olimpici, 175–6.

23. On this process see Mazzarini, “Il miracolo di Onesti.”

24. Forcellese, L’Italia e I Giochi Olimpici, 164.

25. See Mazzarini, “Il Miracolo di Onesti;” Bonini, “Le Olimpiadi nell’Italia che cambia.”

26. Forcellese, L’Italia e I Giochi Olimpici, 169–72.

27. ACdS, PCM, 1955-58, 3-2-5, 10024-93.4, b.205, Comitato Olimpico Nazionale Italiano, “Pro-Memoria per la Presidenza del Consiglio dei Ministri, 12 September 1957,” 1.

28. On the continuity-discontinuity of CONI in the immediate post-Fascist period see Bonini, Le Istituzioni Sportive Italiane, 123–30.

29. Forcellese, L’Italia e I Giochi Olimpici, 167.

30. See Sbetti, “Il caso Vaccaro.”

31. Forcellese, L’Italia e I Giochi Olimpici, 185.

32. On continuity and the lack of purges/amnesties and the memory of Fascism see Baldassini, L’Ombra di Mussolini; Bonini, Storia costituzionale della repubblica; Cooke, The Legacy of the Italian Resistance; D’Angelo, I socialisti e la defascistizzazione mancata; Domenico, Italian Fascists on Trial; Franzinelli, L’Amnistia Togliatti; Pavone, Alle origini della Repubblica.

33. Martin, Sport Italia, 104.

34. Forcellese, L’Italia e I Giochi Olimpici, 166–7.

35. Carter, Modern Italy, 171.

36. See Impiglia, L’Olimpiade dal volto umano, 222–43.

37. On the relationship between the two see Riccardi, “Il Cattolicesimo della Repubblica,” in Sabbatucci and Vidotto, Storia d’Italia 6, 256–64.

38. Gino Bartali won the Giro d’Italia three times (1936, 1937 and 1946) and the Tour de France twice (1938 and 1948). His image was that of a devout Catholic whose capacity for silent suffering won him the moniker of the “iron man.” In 2013, he was posthumously awarded with the honour Righteous Among the Nations by Yad Vashem, the Holocaust memorial and education centre in Jerusalem. The award was given in recognition of his underground work as a courier for the resistance following the German occupation of Italy in September 1943, which played an important role in the rescue of Jews.

39. Archambault, “Il calcio e l’oratorio …;” Munoz, “The Birth of an International Catholic Federation …;” Forgacs and Gundle, Mass Culture and Italian Society from Fascism to the Cold War, 247–59; Martin, “From Cycling Priests to the ‘Sportsman’s Pope,’” 545–61; Pivato, Sia Lodato Bartali; Pivato, Clericalismo e laicismo nella cultura popolare italiana; Tondelli, “I Successi del Divo …”.

40. Bosworth, Whispering City, 242; ACdS, PCM, 1955-58, 3-2-5, 10024-93, b.203, Affari Generali, “Note informative riservata per S.E. Mario Scelba,” 20 December 1954, 2.

41. Andreotti, “Pensierini Olimpici,” 4.

42. “Un trionfo di spirituale esultanza intorno alle ‘ferventia agmina,’” L’Osservatore Romano, 26 August 1960; “Visitatori di tutto il mondo ...”, L’Osservatore Romano, 29–30 August 1960.

43. Tondelli, “I Successi del Divo…,” 48; Carraro, “The Olympic Games that Enchanted the World,” 13.

44. ACdS, PCM, 1955-58, 3-2-5, 10024-90, b.203, Affari Generali, “Relazioni sportive con l’U.R.S.S.,” 18 December 1954.

45. Arrigo Morandi, “Il compiacimento dell’UISP,” L’Unità, 18 June 1955.

46. See Forcellese, L’Italia e I Giochi Olimpici, 234–6.

47. Telesca, “Sport, politica e affari,” 168.

48. Giovanni Cesareo, “La prova delle Olimpiadi,” L’Unità, 19 June 1955.

49. Duggan, The Force of Destiny, 551.

50. On the relationship between the two, see Drake, “The Soviet Dimension of Italian Communism;” Gori and Pons, Dagli archivi di Mosca.

51. Impiglia, L’Olimpiade dal volto umano, 228; Maraniss, Rome 1960, 256.

52. ACdS, PCM, 1955-58, 3-2-5, 10024-93.4, b.203, “Telespresso 5236/975 Oggetto: Stampa spagnola Olimpiadi 1960 – propaganda comunista,” 26 August 1960.

53. Andreotti, “Pensierini Olimpici,” 4.

54. “La Carta Olimpica,” L’Espresso, 18 September 1960; E. Marussig, “La propaganda profitta dei giochi olimpici,” L’Espresso, 11 September 1960; M. Segni, “OR. I ‘commandos’ di Gedda,” Vie Nuove, XV, 35 (1960), 12–13.

55. L’Unità, 6 August; 17 August; 18 August; 19 August; 21 August; 27 August; 1 September; 6 September; See also “Adunata olimpica in Piazza S. Pietro,” L’Espresso, 28 August 1960.

56. Organizing Committee, The Games of the XVII Olympiad, 209.

57. Petri, “Dalla ricostruzione al miracolo economico” in Sabbatucci and Vidotto, Storia d’Italia 5, 417.

58. Luca Pavolini, “La fiaccola nel Mezzogiorno,” L’Unità, 24 August 1960; A. Savioli, “La fiaccola passa tra la miseria della Lucania,” L’Unità, 23 August 1960; Martin, “Bikila’s Aria,” 92–3.

59. Maria A. Macciocchi, “Togliere All’Italia la Truccatura Fascista,” Vie Nuove 33, XV (1960), 14–15.

60. Riccardi, “Il Cattolicesimo della Repubblica,” in Sabbatucci and Vidotto, Storia d’Italia 6: 233.

61. Jeff Pratt, “Catholic Culture,” in Forgacs and Lumley, Italian Cultural Studies, 133.

62. See Scoppola, La repubblica dei partiti, 322–9. On the church’s relationship with Rome in the period and its attempts to confront modernity see Manzo. Papa Giovanni vescovo a Roma.

63. Zonis, “City of Women,” 78.

64. Mino Guerrini. “Party girls anche a Roma: La cortigiana asciutta,” L’Espresso, 24 January 1960.

65. On Roman debauchery, hedonism and drugs in the 1950s see Gundle, Death and the Dolce Vita.

66. On the law see Bellassai, La legge del desiderio; Tambor, The Lost Wave.

67. Camilla Cederna, “L’Assedio. L’Harem Sportivo del Villaggio Olimpico,” L’Espresso, 28 August 1960; G.B. “Generali e ‘travet’ in lizza per l’Olimpiade burocratico,” Avanti!, 24 August 1960.

68. Willson, Women in Twentieth-Century Italy, 131.

69. Manlio Cancogni, “Ha vinto lo scatto,” L’Espresso, 18 September 1960.

70. Cancogni, “Ha vinto lo scatto,” 1960.

71. Willson, Women in Twentieth-Century Italy, 132.

72. On the politics and development of the Plan see, Avarello, “L”Urbanizzazione;” Insolera, Roma Moderna (2001).

73. Pagnotta, Sindaci a Roma, 29–30. On this topic see also Della Seta and Della Seta, I Suoli di Roma, 165–206.

74. ACdS, PCM, 1955-58, 3-2-5, 10024-93.3, Comitato Interministeriale per I Giochi della XVII Olimpiade, Verbale della Riunione 27 December 1957, 6.

75. Arrigo Benedetti, “Un record Italiano. Affari e Olimpiadi,” L’Espresso, 21 August 1960.

76. Cederna, Mirabilia Urbis, 59.

77. Della Seta and Della Seta, I Suoli di Roma, 191. “Oil-spot” developments were small, concentrated areas of construction that arose across the city with no sense of co-ordination or integration.

78. Garano, “Town Planning References,” 24.

79. Telesca, “Tra Berruti e l’Immobiliare,” Passato e Presente, 64.

80. For a more critical take on the Cet’s initial proposal and a more positive view of the 1959 Plan, which explains the polemic as a result of professional jealousies and political opportunism, see Samperi, Mezzo secolo di urbanistica romana, 70–4.

81. Insolera, “Il ‘piano regolatore’ delle Olimpiadi,” 19.

82. Porro, “Il cemento e la ricotta,” 23.

83. Della Seta and Della Seta, Suoli di Roma, 193.

84. Andreotti, “Olimpiadi,” 1960, 3.

85. For the President of the Council of Ministers’ request relating to the various Ministries and public bodies in response to the predicted “grave traffic problems” see ACdS, PCM, 1955-58, 3-2-5, 10024-93.4, b.203, Affari Generali, “Roma-Olimpiadi, N.45994/10024” in folder “Traffico e orario degli uffici.” Folder also contains various compliant responses and the Commune’s more detailed plan for traffic management during the tournament.

86. ACdS, PCM, 1955-58, 3-2-5, 10024-93.4, b.203, Affari Generali, “Provvedimenti straordinari di carattere generale interessanti il traffico durante le olimpiadi” in folder “Traffico e orario degli uffici”; G.B. “S’iniziano I Giochi con Roma paralizzata,” Avanti!, 25 August 1960.

87. ACdS, PCM, 1955-58, 3-2-5, 10024-93, b.205, Comune di Roma “Letter from Mayor Tupini to Prime Minister Zoli, 26 July 1957,” 6. Tupini’s description of the road and its rationale is reprinted almost word for word, with the exception of “delicate points” in the Commune’s report on works undertaken for the Games. See, ACdS, PCM, 1955-58, 3-2-5, 10024-93, b.205, Comune di Roma, “Relazione Aggiuntiva sull’Organizzazione delle Olimpiadi 1960 (Aggiornata al 20 February 1958),” 13.

88. Piero Della Seta. “Le Olimpiadi e la speculazione edilizia: Roma dal Cielo,” Vie Nuove, XV, 37 (1960) 29.

89. “I favorevoli commenti della stampa internazionale,” L’Osservatore Romano, 27 August 1960; “Prospettive della Strada Olimpica tra l”EUR e il Flaminio,” L’Osservatore Romano, 28 August 1960.

90. On the SGI see Della Seta and Della Seta, I Suoli di Roma, 182–6.

91. Telesca, “Tra Berruti e l’Immobiliare,” Passato e Presente, 61.

92. Della Seta and Della Seta, I Suoli di Roma, 176–7. See also Avarello, “L’Urbanizzazione,” 173–8.

93. Arrigo Benedetti. “Capitale Corrotta = Nazione Infetta,” L’Espresso, 11 December 1955; Manlio Cancogni, “Dietro il sorriso di Rebecchini,” L’Espresso, 11 December 1955; Manlio Cancogni, “Rebecchini ha tre modi per diffendersi,” L’Espresso, 5 February 1956.

94. Pagnotta, Sindaci a Roma, 38–9.

95. For aerial photos of the areas of the city touched by building for the Games, see: Piero Della Seta, “Le Olimpiadi e la speculazione edilizia: Roma dal Cielo,” Vie Nuove, XV, 37 (1960), 28–35.

96. Benedetti, “Un record Italiano,” L’Espresso, 21 August 1960.

97. Pagnotta, Sindaci a Roma, 49.

98. Matricardi. Qualche Verità Sull’Aeroporto di Fiumicino, 71.

99. Natoli, Il Sacco di Roma, 67.

100. Dogliani, “Constructing Memory and Anti-Memory,” 25.

101. On Fascism, memory and the Foro Italico see Arthurs, “Fascism as ‘heritage’ in contemporary Italy,” 116–23; Arthurs, “Voleva essere Cesare, morì Vespasiano,” 290–2.

102. Modrey, “Architecture as a Mode of Self-Representation,” 693.

103. ACdS, PCM, 1955-58, 3-2-5, 10024-93, b.206, Comitato per la Stampa e Rassegna Stampa Estera, “Rassegna della stampa estera”, Anno II, N.20, 20 October 1958, 2. See also mention of Fascism’s role in building many of the arenas from The Times in ACdS, PCM, 1955-58, 3-2-5, 10024-93, b.206, Comitato per la Stampa e Rassegna Stampa Estera, “Rassegna della stampa estera,” Anno II, N.18, 30 September 1958, 2.

104. Liverni. “L”Italia dei giornali esteri,” 29–30.

105. Forcellese, L’Italia e I Giochi Olimpici, 199.

106. Camera dei Deputati, Atti Parlamentari … 1958–63, 10612.

107. See Foot, Italy’s Divided Memory; Pavone. A Civil War; Pavone. “Le tre guerre: patriottica, civile e di classe;” Cooke, The Legacy of the Italian Resistance.

108. Camera dei Deputati, Atti Parlamentari … 1958–63, 10612-3.

109. Vidotto, “I luoghi del fascismo a Roma,” 49

110. Camera dei Deputati. Atti Parlamentari … 1958–63, 10613.

111. Camera dei Deputati. Atti Parlamentari … 1958–63, 10615.

112. Maria A. Macciocchi, “Togliere All’Italia la Truccatura Fascista,” Vie Nuove, 33, XV (1960), 15.

113. Camera dei Deputati. Atti Parlamentari … 1958–63, 10615.

114. Bonini, “Le Olimpiadi nell’Italia che cambia,” 10.

115. “Giuro di eseguire senza discutere gli ordini del Duce e di servire con tutte le mie forze e se è necessario col mio sangue la causa della rivoluzione Fascista.” “I swear to follow the orders of the Duce without question and to serve with all of my strength and if necessary my blood, the cause of the Fascist Revolution.” Caporilli, L’educazione giovanile nell stato fascista, 171–3.

116. “È proseguita ieri la cancellazione delle scritte fasciste al Foro Italico,” Il Messaggero, 10 August 1960.

117. “Manifestazioni di protesta al Foro Italico inscenata da un gruppo di giovani missini,” Il Messaggero, 11 August 1960.

118. On Lando Ferretti’s links with the regime and post-war career see Giuntini, “Il Cappello del Papa.”

119. Forcellese, L’Italia e I Giochi Olimpici, 237.

120. Organizing Committee of the Games of the XVII Olympiad, The Games of the XVII Olympiad, 31.

121. Insolera, Roma Moderna, 244–5. For the general historiography and criticisms of the urban planning surrounding the Games see Avarello, Paolo, “L’Urbanizzazione;” Cederna, Mirabilia Urbis; Della Seta and Della Seta, I Suoli di Roma; Insolera, Roma moderna (2001); Modrey, “Architecture as a Mode of Self-Representation;” Telesca, “Tra Berruti e l’Immobiliare;” “Sport, politica e affari;” “Dealing with the Past.” For a more positive critique see Samperi, Mezzo secolo di urbanistica romana, 73–6.

122. See Bosworth, Whispering City, 257–8; Martin, “Bikila’s Aria,” 83–99; Tulli, Breve storia delle Olimpiadi, 75.

123. Baldassini, L’Ombra di Mussolini, 113.

124. Scimonelli, “A colloquio con Giulio Andreotti,” 10.

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