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Abstract
In April 1967, a group of colonels seized power in Greece. Since Greece was a member-state of the Council of Europe and held an association agreement with the European Community, both organizations had to define their positions vis-à-vis the new military regime. Very soon, politicians in the parliamentary assemblies of both organizations started to cooperate with the aim of imposing sanctions on Greece. This article examines the inter-organizational dynamics between the European Community and the Council of Europe on Greece during the colonels’ regime. It argues that the European Community imported concrete policy positions and even normative ideas which had first emerged in the Council of Europe. In so doing, the Community prepared the ground for its future human-rights policies.
Notes
1. Woodhouse, The Rise and Fall of the Greek Colonels, 52.
2. Pedaliu, ‘Human Rights and International Security’.
3. Manners, ‘Normative Power Europe: A Contradiction in Terms?’
4. This set of events might be considered an important episode in the process of what Frank Schimmelfenning calls ‘constitutionalization of the EU’, meaning ‘the institutionalization of human rights in the framework of the EC/EU’. Rittberger and Schimmelfenning, 2.
5. Hebel and Lenz, ‘The Identity/Policy Nexus in European Foreign Policy’.
6. The official name of the European Parliament was at the time the ‘European Parliamentary Assembly’. We shall use, however, the term ‘European Parliament’ (EP), with which the members of the assembly already referred to it.
7. Moyn, The Last Utopia, 212–27.
8. Keys, ‘Anti-Torture Politics’.
9. This fact leads Andrew Moravcsik to affirm that the main use of human rights in European integration was to serve as a means of democratic mutual recognition amongst the Western European governments: Moravcsik, ‘The Origins of Human Rights Regimes’.
10. The European Commission of Human Rights was, within the CoE jurisdiction, the tribunal which took cases for first consideration before they could go to the European Court of Human Rights. It was abolished in 1998.
11. Madsen, ‘Legal Diplomacy’.
12. Pedaliu, ‘Human Rights and International Security’.
13. Pedaliu, ‘Human Rights and Foreign Policy’.
14. Maragkou, ‘The Foreign Factor;’ Klarevas, ‘Were the Eagle and the Phoenix?’
15. Pedaliu, ‘Human Rights and International Security’, 1024–5.
16. Schimmelfenning, The EU, NATO and the integration of Europe, 222.
17. De Angelis and Karamouzi, ‘Enlargement and the Historical Origins of European Community’s Democratic Identity’.
18. Agreement establishing an association between the EEC and Greece (1961), Article 72.
19. Treaty of Rome (1957), Preamble and Articles 237 and 238.
20. Edoardo Martino’s papers on international cooperation (1964–1967), EM-53, HAEU.
21. CoE, Consultative Assembly: Adopted texts, 19th Session, resolution No. 351 (Strasbourg, 26 September 1967).
22. CoE, Consultative Assembly, Working Documents, doc. 2202, doc. 2203 (Strasbourg, 25 April 1967).
23. CoE, Consultative Assembly, Official Report of Debates, 19th Session (Strasbourg, 24–28 April 1967), t. I, 5–11, 44–88.
24. CoE, Consultative Assembly: Adopted texts, 19th Session, directive No. 256 (Strasbourg, 26 April 1967).
25. ‘L’Assemblée consultative du Conseil de l’Europe déplore la suspension de la légalité constitutionnelle en Grèce’, Le Monde, 28 April 1967, 6.
26. Yearbook of the European Convention on Human Rights 1967 (The Hague, Martinus Nijhoff, 1969), 716–92 (782).
27. Ibid., 26–7.
28. CoE, Le Danemark, la Norvège, la Suède et les Pays-Bas contre la Grèce, première décision de la Commission européenne des Droits de l’Homme sur la recevabilité (Strasbourg, 24 January 1968).
29. ‘Dr. W. J. (Wim) Schuijt’, Parlement & Politiek (https://www.parlement.com/id/vg09ll89fjve/w_j_wim_schuijt; last accessed February 1, 2016).
30. EP, communiqué of the Committee on Association with Greece (Strasbourg, 3 May 1967), BAC 173/1995 1430, HAEUCOM (own translation).
31. ‘Sulla esigenza di un ordinamento democratico delle Comunità Europee’ (14 April 1967), LLS-8, HAEU.
32. Jean Rey’s personal archive, notes on Greece (1967–1969), HAULB.
33. Confidential note to the attention of the vice-president of the Commission Lionello Levi-Sandri about the COREPER meeting of 3 May 1967 (Brussels, 5 May 1967), BAC 173/1995 1430, HAEUCOM.
34. EP, Débats, Comptes rendus in extenso, 91 (Strasbourg, 8 May 1967): 11–20.
35. EP, communiqué of the Joint Parliamentary Commission EEC-Greece (Salonika, 31 March 1967), BAC 3/1978 275/5, HAEUCOM.
36. There was no English version of the EP’s verbatim at the time; own translation.
37. EP, Débats, Comptes rendus in extenso, 91 (9–10 May 1967): 21–77; Faller’s quote on p. 15.
38. Ibid. (11 May 1967): 114–116 (own translation).
39. Jean Rey’s personal archive, notes on Greece (1967–1969), HAULB 126 PP 24.
40. Jean Rey, Discours prononcé par Jean Rey, membre de la Commission de la Communauté économique européenne, le 23 juin 1964 à Rome, devant l’Assemblée de l’Union européenne occidentale (Brussels, Services des Communautés européennes, 1964).
41. EP, Emilio Battista, Fernand Dehousse, Maurice Faure, Wim Schuijt, W.J. and Ludwig Metzger. Rapport fait au nom la commission des affairs politiques et des questions institutionnelles sur l'election de l'Assemblee parlementaire europeenne au suffrage universel direct (30 April 1960).
42. EC Commission, special verbatim 401 (Brussels, 3 May 1967), BAC 209.1980, HAEUCOM.
43. Greek government’s memorandum to the European Commission (Athens, 17 May 1967), BAC 173/1995 1430, HAEUCOM.
44. EC Commission, note on the political situation in Greece (Brussels, 29 May 1967), BAC 3/1978 275/4, HAEUCOM.
45. Rey’s responses to the questions of the European Parliament (Brussels, 22 and 27 May 1967), BAC 26/1969 696/3, HAEUCOM.
46. EC Commission, Note on Jean Rey’s intervention at the 6 June 1967 meeting of the EC Council of Ministers, BAC 3/1978 275/5, HAEUCOM.
47. EC Council of Ministers, verbatim of a confidential meeting (Brussels, 6 June 1967), CM2 1967/39, HAEUCOUN.
48. EC Commission’s note on the Greek political situation’s impact upon the association agreement (9 June 1967), BAC 173/1995 1490, HAEUCOM.
49. A good example of this is a report signed by Carlo Scarascia Mugnozza and approved by the EP on 5 May 1969. This report explained the measures undertaken by the EC as a means to defend human rights: EP, Documents de séance 1969–1970, No. 33, ‘Rapport fait au nom de la Commission de l’association avec la Grèce sur les répercussions de la situation politique actuelle en Grèce et sur le fonctionnement de l’association C.E.E.-Grèce’ (Strasbourg, 5 May 1969).
50. Golub, ‘Did the Luxembourg Compromise’; Ludlow, The European Community, 68–93.
51. Edoardo Martino’s notes on Greece (Brussels, July 1967), EM-76, HAEU.
52. EC, Letter from the European Federalist Movement to the EC Commission (Bologna, 13 December 1967), EM-77, HAEU; letter of the Secrétariat syndical européen to the European Commission (Brussels, 14 June 1968), BAC 173/1995 1430, HAEUCOM.
53. Verbatim of the 9th joint meeting of the Consultative Assembly of the CoE and the EP (Strasbourg, 21 September 1967), PE0 AP PV/PE-AC PEAC 19670921, HAEU; Dehousse’s quote on pages 20–1 (own translation).
54. Note to Edoardo Martino on EBI loan to Greece (Brussels, 26 September 1967), EM-76, HAEU; EC Commission, final verbatim 8 (Brussels, 27 September 1967), BAC 209.1980, HAEUCOM.
55. Ralf Dahrendorf, a member of the German Freie Demokratische Partei, replaced Martino in January 1970. He was followed by Lord Christopher Soames (Winston Churchill’s son-in-law) in 1973. Both Dahrendorf and Soames kept a stance on Greece equivalent to Martino’s. In October 1970, Dahrendorf even affirmed that this stance had strongly contributed to prevent violence in Greece, see EC Commission, Ralf Dahrendorf’s communication on EC–Greece relations (Brussels, 8 October 1970), BAC 50/1982 27/1, HAEUCOM.
56. Cedric Thornberry, ‘Greek Prisoners Speak of Police Torture’, the Guardian (24 November 1967): 15.
57. Becket and Marreco, Torture of Political Prisoners.
58. Leuprecht, ‘Max van der Stoel’.
59. Η Συμμετοχή της Ελλάδας, 161–3.
60. EC Commission, verbatim 1968, BAC 259.80 PV 35–9, HAEUCOM.
61. Notes on the meeting of the European Socialist Group (26 September 1967), EM-79, HAEU.
62. EC Commission, report of the Legal Service on the suspension of the association agreement with Greece (Brussels, 6 November 1968), BAC 173/1995 1431, HAEUCOM.
63. CoE, Conclusion de la 185e réunion des délégués des ministres tenue à Paris du 9 au 11 décembre 1969.
64. House of Commons debates, Foreign Affairs (London, 8 December 1969), Hansard.
65. EP, Committee on the Association with Greece (Strasbourg, 11 December 1969), PE0 AP QP/QO-0015/69, HAEU.
66. EC Council of Ministers, verbatim of a confidential meeting (Brussels, 26 January 1970), CM2 1970/2ac, HAEUCOUN.
67. Edoardo Martino’s meeting with the Committee on the Association with Greece (Brussels, 13 March 1970), BAC 3/1978 280/1, HAEUCOM.
68. EC Commission, note of the Commission Legal Service (Brussels, 11 May 1970), EM-82, HAEU.
69. EC Commission, press release (Brussels, 16 April 1970), Jean Rey’s archive, HAULB 126 PP 24.
70. EC Commission, press communiqué (Brussels, 16 April 1970), BAC 50/1982 19/1, HAEUCOM (own translation).
71. Verney and Panos, ‘Linkage Politics’.
72. Patel, ‘Who Was Saving Whom?’
73. Davignon Report (Luxembourg, 27 October 1970), Centre Virtuel de Connaissance sur l’Europe (CVCE).
74. Thomas, The Helsinki Effect, 39–54.
75. Karamouzi, Greece, the EEC and the Cold War.
76. EC Commission’s opinion on the Hellenic Republic’s application for accession (Brussels, 23 May 1979), CVCE.
77. The EU’s Approach to Human Rights Conditionality, 42–7.
78. Pedaliu, ‘A Discordant Note’.
79. Maragkou, ‘Favouritism in NATO’.
80. North Atlantic Council meeting (Rome, 26 May 1970), CVR(70)28 part II, HANATO.