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ABSTRACT
This article explores the postimperial political projects of the Sakha national and party intellectuals in the early twentieth century. Focusing on the processes of imagining a postimperial order, it examines the logic of and ways in which the Sakha national intellectuals (the first generation) envisioned educational activity, aspiration to self-government (autonomy) and the idea of federation. After the Soviets seized power in the region, the Sakha party intellectuals (the second generation) adopted and used the experience of the first-generation national intellectuals to establish the Yakut Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic in 1922.
Acknowledgements
I am grateful to the editors of Ab Imperio for the opportunity to publish a translation of my article, as well as to two anonymous reviewers who helped me to better articulate my aims and objectives and highlight the debate surrounding the decolonization of ‘Russian’ studies.
Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).
Notes
1. Korobeinikov, “Iakutskaia avtonomiia: postimperskie politicheskie proekty Iakutskoi intelligentsii, 1905–1922 gg.”
2. Since I use sources of personal origin mainly of the early twentieth century, I have opted for a dual system: in the text I usually use a simplified Library of Congress system. However, I depart from this system a) when a Russian name/surname has a clear English version (Joseph instead of Iosif, Maxim instead of Maksim); b) when a Russian name/surname, notion or concept has an accepted English spelling (for instance, Yakut instead of Iakut, Yadrintsev instead of Iadrintsev). At the same time, for reasons of practicality, I use the standard transliteration in the notes and bibliography.
3. Korobeinikov and Antonov, “Toward a Postimperial Order? The Sakha Intellectuals and the Revolutionary Transformations in Late Imperial Russia, 1905–1917.”
4. See only a small fraction of the recently published texts on the decolonization of the ‘Russian’ field: Susan Smith-Peter, “What do Scholars of Russia owe Ukraine?” Jordan Russian Center, accessed April 1, 2022, https://jordanrussiacenter.org/news/what-do-scholars-of-russia-owe-ukraine-today/?fbclid=IwAR25y5gBO8OCzebvEVHdA_L5fcNXzQwI6riSLiUduw_0oFWWC8qTWOIkFmQ#.Yl7HoJNByqD; Marina Mogilner, “There Can Be No ‘Vne’,” Slavic Review, accessed February 28, 2022, http://www.slavicreview.illinois.edu/discussion/; Mykola Riabchuk and Serhy Yekelchyk, “Deconstructing Imperial Knowledge,” Eurozine, accessed August 11, 2022, https://www.eurozine.com/deconstructing-imperial-knowledge/; Casey Michel, “Decolonize Russia: To Avoid More Senseless Bloodshed, the Kremlin Must Lose what Empire it Still Retains,” The Atlantic, accessed June 3, 2022, https://www.theatlantic.com/ideas/archive/2022/05/russia-putin-colonization-ukraine-chechnya/639428/?fbclid=IwAR3YtWFUVY0s3EIWwFRLIHZgDttAYp9s%E2%80%A6; and Frank E. Sysyn, “Decentering or Decolonizing the Russian Grand Narrative: Incorporating Mykhailo Hrushevsky into the Teaching of Russian and Soviet History,” H-Net: Humanities & Social Sciences Online, accessed November 17, 2022. https://networks.h-net.org/node/10000/blog/decolonizing-russian-studies/11760008/decentring-or-decolonizing-russian-grand. See also a collection of essays on the decolonization in the SICE Blog, https://www.oeaw.ac.at/sice/sice-blog.
5. See Gerasimov et al., A New Imperial History of Northern Eurasia, 600–1700: From Russian to Global History.
6. Although the intellectuals described themselves as Yakuts in Russian, they called themselves Sakha in the Sakha language. The acquired name of the Sakha ethnic group as Yakuts refers to the ‘Russian’ colonial practices during the Siberian colonization. In the context of this article, I adhere to the expression ‘Sakha intellectuals’ for both generations, but I use the word ‘Yakut’ when citing historical documents. At the same time, I use the official name of the region and republic as the Yakut region or the Yakut Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic.
7. See, Aimermacher and Bordyugov, Natsional’nye istorii v sovetskom i postsovetskikh gosudarstvakh; and Bomsdorf and Bordyugov, Natsional’nye istorii na ostsovetskom prostranstve–II.
8. I use the term ‘intellectuals’ in a broad sense to refer to people who played a prominent role in the regions, as well as developed ideas for the future reconstruction of the Russian postimperial space.
9. Martin, The Affirmative Action Empire: Nations and Nationalism in the Soviet Union, 1923–1939; and Hirsch, Empire of Nations: Ethnographic Knowledge and the Making of the Soviet Union.
10. Tolz, Russia’s Own Orient: The Politics of Identity and Oriental Studies in the Late Imperial and Early Soviet Periods; and Khalid, Making Uzbekistan: Nation, Empire, and Revolution in the Early USSR.
11. See, Gerasimov et al., “The Postimperial Meets Postcolonial: Russian Historical Experience and the Postcolonial Moment”; Gerasimov et al., “Forms and Practices of Envisaging a Postimperial Order: Hybridity as a New Subjectivity”; Gerasimov et al., “What is the Meaning of Post- in Post-Imperial?”; and Semyonov, “The Ambiguity of Federalism as a Postimperial Political Vision: Editorial Introduction.”
12. See more about the Yakut region in Forsyth, History of the People of Siberia: Russia’s North Asian Colony, 1581–1990, 163–8 and Slezkine, Artic Mirrors: Russia and the Small People of the North. See also the works of the Soviet historians Basharin, Istoriia agrarnykh otnoshenii v Iakutii: v 2 tomakh and Okladnikov, Istoria Iakutskoi ASSR.
13. Glebov, “Predislovie,” 2–10.
14. Bassin, Imperial Visions: Nationalist Imagination and Geographical Expansion in the Russian Far East, 1840–1865, 5.
15. The discourse of Siberia as the ‘land of the future’ also circulated after the collapse of the Russian Empire. See Baievsky, “Siberia–The Storehouse of the Future.”
16. Schenk, Russlands Fahrt in die Moderne: Mobilität und sozialer Raum im Eisenbahnzeitalter, 14; and Remnev, “‘Korotkii’ XIX vek Sibiri: sibirskoe vremia i prostranstvo,” 239–41.
17. On various trajectories of russification see Miller, “Russification or Russifications?” in The Romanov Empire and Nationalism: Essays in the Methodology of Historical Research.
18. Remnev, “Siberia and the Russian Far East in the Imperial Geography of Power,” 430.
19. Miller, The Romanov Empire and Nationalism: Essays in the Methodology of Historical Research, 176.
20. The general meaning of the term indigenous people was introduced by Mikhail Speransky from the decrees of Peter and Catherine’s time; the term was then transformed into the classification of ethnic groups in the Russian Empire. By the end of the nineteenth century, indigenous came to mean all non-Russian population. In the context of pre-revolutionary Siberia, the term had both ethnic and class identification. See Slocum, “Who, and When, Were the Inorodtsy? The Evolution of the Category of ‘Aliens’ in Imperial Russia”; and Ssorin-Chaikov, The Social Life of the State in Subarctic Siberia.
21. Kappeler, “Obrazovanie natsii i natsional’nye dvizheniia v Rossiiskoi imperii,” 395.
22. See Miller and Berger, Nationalizing Empires and Lohr, Nationalizing the Russian Empire: The Campaign against Enemy Aliens During World War I.
23. Suny, The Revenge of the Past: Nationalism, Revolution, and the Collapse of the Soviet Union, 1–2.
24. Sablin, Governing Post-Imperial Siberia and Mongolia, 1911–1924: Buddhism, Socialism, and Nationalism in State and Autonomy Building, 3–6.
25. Sablin and Korobeinikov, “Buryat-Mongol and Alash Autonomous Movements before the Soviets, 1905–1917,” 212.
26. D’yakonova, Iakutskaia intelligentsiia v natsional’noi istorii: sud’by i vremia (konets XIX v.–1917 g.), 14–16.
27. Sieroszewski, Iakuty. Opyt etnograficheskogo issledovaniia, 483.
28. Sablin and Semyonov, “Autonomy and Decentralization in the Global Imperial Crisis: The Russian Empire and the Soviet Union in 1905–1924,” 551.
29. Sunderland, “Russians into Iakuts? ‘Going Native’ and Problems of Russian National Identity in the Siberian North, 1870s–1914.”
30. Yadrintsev, Sibir’ kak koloniia: k iubileiu trekhsotletiia: sovremennoe polozhenie Sibiri, ee nuzhdy i potrebnosti, ee proshloe i budushchee, 28.
31. Sibirskaia gazeta, no. 4, March 22, 1881.
32. Iokhel'son, “Zametki o naselenii Yakutskoi oblasti v istoriko-etnograficheskom otnoshenii,” 5.
33. Gerasimov et al., “In Search of a New Imperial History,” 37.
34. In the context of the liberal anticolonial movement in Asian Russia, the autonomist discourse was a continuation of the discourse of zemstvo self-government. Sablin and Korobeinikov, “Buryat-Mongol and Alash Autonomous Movements before the Soviets, 1905–1917,” 218.
35. See, Tolz, “Orientalism, Nationalism, and Ethnic Diversity in Late Imperial Russia,” 142–3.
36. An administrative unit in territorial division of the Yakut region.
37. Semyonov, “The Ambiguity of Federalism as a Postimperial Political Vision: Editorial Introduction”; Bospflug, “The Muslim ‘Federalist Debate’ in Revolutionary Russia.”
38. See von Mohrenschildt, Towards a United States of Russia; von Hagen, “Federalism and Pan-Movements: Re-Imaging Empire”; and Raffas, The Soviet Union: Federation or Empire?
39. von Hagen, “Writing the History of Russia as Empire: The Perspectives of Federalism,” 399.
40. Gerasimov, “The Great Imperial Revolution.”
41. von Mohrenschildt, Towards a United States of Russia, 66–70.
42. Korobeinikov, “Imperskaia transformatsiia publichnoi sfery: pechatnoe slovo i publichnyi debat kak sredstvo formirovaniia obshchestvennykh dvizhenii v Sibiri,” 232.
43. Schenk, “Travel, Railroads, and Identity Formation in the Russian Empire,” 136–51.
44. Glebov, “Siberian Ruptures: Dilemmas of Ethnography in an Imperial Situation.”
45. Tolz, Russia’s Own Orient: The Politics of Identity and Oriental Studies in the Late Imperial and Early Soviet Periods.
46. Cited from Yadrintsev, “Narodno-oblastnoe nachalo v russkoi zhizni i istorii.”
47. See, Rainbow, “Racial ‘Degradation’ and Siberian Regionalism,” 185.
48. Yadrintsev, Sibir’ kak koloniia; Grigory Potanin, Oblastnicheskaia tendentsiia v Sibiri. According to Potanin, ‘the amount of land seized by the Russian courts from the indigenous people was, of course, not great, but over the years it gradually increased with the constant growth of Russian colonization.’ Potanin, “Nuzhdy Sibiri,” in Sibir’, ee sovremennoe sostoianie i ee nuzhdy, 279.
49. Potanin, “Probuzhdenie oblastnichestva v Kazani.”
50. Vostochnoe obozrenie, no. 11, March 13, 1886.
51. See, Remnev, “Universitetskii vopros v Sibiri XIX stoletiia.”
52. Potanin, “Goroda Sibiri,” 259.
53. Protod’iakonov, Dorogoi Maksim, u nas est’ budushchee, schastlivoe i mirnoe …: pis’ma P.A. Sleptsova-Oiunskogo M.K. Ammosovu, 9.
54. Mogilner, Mifologiia ‘podpol’nogo cheloveka’: radikal’nyi mikrokosm v Rossii nachala XX veka kak predmet semioticheskogo analiza, 8.
55. Eklof and Saburova, A Generation of Revolutionaries: Nikolai Charushin and Russian Populism from the Great Reforms to Perestroika, 55.
56. Glebov, “Siberian Ruptures: Dilemmas of Ethnography in an Imperial Situation,” 303.
57. Tolz, Russia’s Own Orient, 122.
58. Being under the influence of populism since the 1870s, ethnographers themselves were involved in the context of Yakut issues; they studied Iakut problems and transmitted knowledge about them through the press; Vitashevsky and Pekarsky even corresponded in Iakut. Mykhailo Drahomanov previously stated about such features, believing that ‘only an illogical populist cannot become a Ukrainophile, and vice versa’. See Gerasimov et al., “Russian Sociology in Imperial Context,” 53–82.
59. Vseobshhaja perepis’ naselenija 1897 g. Iakutskaja oblast’. Itogi pervoj vseobshhej perepisi naselenija, 15.
60. Holquist, “To Count, to Extract, to Exterminate: Population Statistics and Population Politics in Late Imperial and Soviet Russia,” 111–44.
61. On the statistics and nationalism see Anderson, Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origin and Spread of Nationalism, 163–85.
62. See, Gerasimov et al., Novaia imperskaia istoriia Severnoi Evrazii, 438–42.
63. Nikiforov, “Zapiska po povodu peresmotra polozheniia ob inorodtsakh kasatel’no iakutov Iakutskoi oblasti (3 aprelia 1900 g.).”
64. Sakha (Iakut) tribal aristocrats.
65. Nikiforov, “Zapiska po povodu peresmotra polozheniia ob inorodtsakh kasatel’no iakutov Iakutskoi oblasti (3 aprelia 1900 g.).”
66. Remnev and Suvorova, “‘Russkoe delo’ na aziatskikh okrainakh: ‘russkost’’ pod ugrozoi ili ‘somnitel’nye kul’turtregery’,” 164.
67. Nikiforov, “Proshloe I budushchnost’ iakutskogo khoziaistva.”
68. However, there were still many private schools in the region that were operated by political exiles. Nikiforov-Kulumnur himself was a student of exiled (mostly Polish) revolutionary activists Nikolai Stranden, Dmitry Yurasov and Alexei Sipovich. See Zhirkov, Vasilii Vasil’evich Nikiforov-Kiuliumniur: dokumenty, fotografii, 25.
69. Zalevsky, “Natsional’nye dvizheniia,” 240–1.
70. Korzhikhina, Tebekin, and Tebekina, eds., Dokumenty o revoliutsionnykh sobytiiakh 1905–1907 gg. V Iakutii, 164–5.
71. Nikiforov, Solntse svetit vsem: Stat’i. Pis’ma. Proizvedeniia, 367.
72. A Iakut (Sakha) village, part of an ulus.
73. On 18 January 1906, leaders and participants (16 people) of the ‘Union of Yakuts’ were arrested. In September the same year Nikiforov-Kulumnur was sentenced to one and a half years in a correctional house, other participants were fined and some were acquitted. However, the cassation appeal filed by Nikiforov-Kulumnur influenced the retrial of the case. Except for Nikiforov-Kulumnur himself, who received a year in prison, all the defendants were released. See Zhirkov, Vasilii Vasil’evich Nikiforov-Kiuliumniur: fotografii, dokumenty. Khronika zhizni i deiatel’nosti V.V. Nikiforova, 74–6. For more on the case of the ‘Union of Yakuts’ see Kliorina, Epopeia 'Soiuza Iakutov': (dekar' 1905 g. - iiul' 1908 g.).
74. Pylov, “Iakutskaia pechat’ i ee nedrugi,” 23.
75. Along with Siberian public figures, the leader of the Kyrgyz (Kazakh) intelligentsia, Alikhan Bukeikhanov, was among the signatories of the appeal. See, Iakutskaya mysl’, no. 2, February 13, 1909.
76. Iakut, “Narodnoe obrazovanie v Iakutskoi oblasti.”
77. “Lomka stroia (pis’mo iz Iakutska),” 25, 32.
78. Of course, it is naive to call the development of the regional press the Iakut ‘public sphere’. But in a context when there were no other opportunities for printing, such an activity of the intellectuals was still an important part of the political life of Iakutia.
79. Yasenovich, “Iakutskoe natsional'noe dvizhenie.”
80. See, Trencsényi, “Bunt protiv istorii: konservativnaia revoliutsiia i poiski natsional'noi identichnosti v mezhvoennoi Vostochnoi i Tsentral’noi Evrope,” 208.
81. Novgorodov, “Ob obrazovanii iakutov.”
82. See, for instance, Steinwedel, Threads of Empire: Loyalty and Tsarist Authority in Bashkiria, 1552–1917; and Sablin and Korobeinikov, “Buryat-Mongol and Alash Autonomous Movements before the Soviets, 1905–1917.”
83. Lohr, Nationalizing the Russian Empire: The Campaign against Enemy Aliens during World War I, 27.
84. Sanborn, Imperial Apocalypse: The Great War and the Destruction of the Russian Empire.
85. Serebrennikov, Inorodcheskii vopros v Sibiri, 4.
86. On the notion of global self-determination and anticolonialism see Manela, The Wilsonian Moment: Self-Determination and the International Origins of Anticolonial Nationalism.
87. Ibid., 12. The discussion of provincial autonomy in the regional dimension of Siberia began during the Revolution of 1905–7, after which Sergei Witte even stated: ‘The autonomy of the borderlands is no longer the ultimate ideal of the federalists; they started talking about provincial autonomy, that is, about the transformation of Russia into a union of free, self-determining federations (like America).’ See Shilovsky, “Oblastnichestvo i regionalizm: evoliutsiia vzgliadov sibirskogo obshchestva na puti inkorporatsii Sibiri v obshcherossiiskoe prostranstvo.”
88. Novgorodov, “10 marta v iakutskom soznanii.”
89. D’yachkova, G.V. Ksenofontov: uchenyi i obshchestvenno-politicheskii deiatel’, 51.
90. Ibid.
91. The Congress adopted a special resolution on the introduction of universal primary education in the Iakut language in the Iakut region, as well as regulated the printing of the primer edited by Vladimir Ionov. Kalashnikov, Iakutiia. Khronika. Fakty Sobytiia. 1632–1990, 265.
92. According to the census of 1897, the Yakut region was inhabited by 269,880 people, of which the Russian population, who lived mainly in the Yakut and Olekminsky district, was only 11.4%.
93. In the context of social and political transformation, Ksenofontov proposed the solution of agrarian and national issues. The intellectual was sure that the only way to achieve Yakut welfare was the political, economic and social development of institutions in the conditions of a federal state structure and free national life of the peoples of Russia. Stepanova, Gavriil Vasil’evich Ksenofontov: fotografii i dokumenty, 41–2.
94. Vestnik Iakutskogo Komiteta Obshchestvennoi Bezopasnosti, no. 8, April 6, 1917.
95. The party was created based on the ‘Union of Freedom’. The conference was convened instead of the Second Congress of Yakut and Russian peasants.
96. Kalashnikov, Iakutiia. Khronika. Fakty Sobytiia. 1632–1990, 267; and D’yachkova, G.V. Ksenofontov: uchenyi i obshchestvenno-politicheskii deiatel’, 55.
97. Kalashnikov, Iakutiia. Khronika. Fakty Sobytiia. 1632–1990, 270.
98. See, Novgorodov, “Iakutskaia gramota i iazyk v kachestve neobiazatel’nykh predmetov v programme vysshikh uchilishch Iakutskoi oblasti,” 56. On the Buryat postimperial experience see, Sablin, Governing Post-Imperial Siberia and Mongolia, 1911–1924: Buddhism, Socialism, and Nationalism in State and Autonomy Building, 67–78.
99. See, Gerasimov, “The Great Imperial Revolution,” 26.
100. Iakutskii golos, no. 1, November 7, 1917.
101. Ibid.
102. Ibid.
103. Kalashnikov, Yakutiia. Khronika. Fakty Sobytiia. 1632–1990, 272.
104. Popov, “Interesnoe vremia my perezhivaem … (iz dnevnikovykh zapisei 1917–1919 gg.).”
105. Popov, “O poezdke Nikiforova na Gosekonomsoveshchanie v Omsk i vstrecha ego s Kolchakom.”
106. Cited from Popov, “Interesnoe vremia my perezhivaem … (iz dnevnikovykh zapisei 1917–1919 gg.).”
107. Shilovsky, Pervaia russkaia revoliutsiia 1905–1907 gg. V Sibiri, 118.
108. Dokumenty o revoliutsionnykh sobytiiakh 1905–1907 gg. V Yakutii, 139–41.
109. Metelkina, “Vliianie politicheskikh ssyl’nykh na deiatel’nost’ uchenicheskikh organizatsii Yakutska v 1902–fevrale 1917 g.,” 239–63.
110. Emelyan Yaroslavsky (1878–1943) served exile after his release from katorga. In 1915–17 he was the head of the Iakut Kraevedcheskii Museum; after the February Revolution he became a member of the YAKOB; in the summer of 1917 he was sent to Moscow. Grigory Petrovsky (1878–1958), exiled deputy of the State Duma, had been in Iakutsk since 1916. In 1917, he was elected chairman of the YAKOB, in July 1917, he left for Yekaterinoslav. Sergo Ordzhonikidze (1886–1937), after serving his exile in the Shlisselburg fortress, was in exile in Yakutsk, working as a doctor. In June 1917 he returned to Petrograd. For more on the political exiles in the northeast see, Badcock, A Prison without Walls? Eastern Siberian Exile in the Last Years of Tsarism.
111. Ammosova, Maksim Ammosov: publikatsii, vospominaniia, dokumenty, fotografii, 9–11.
112. For more, Ermolaeva, Iakutskaia kompleksnaia ekspeditsiia 1925–1930 gg.: Razvitie nauki v Iakutii.
113. Smele, The ‘Russian’ Civil Wars, 1916–1926: Ten Years That Shook the World.
114. Vinokurova, M. K. Ammosov i obshchestvenno-politicheskie sobytiia v Iakutii (1920 - 1928 gg.), 42.
115. “Polozhenie vremennogo iakutskogo natsional'nogo komiteta.”
116. Ammosova, Maksim Ammosov: publikatsii, vospominaniia, dokumenty, fotografii, 133–5.
117. This argument is close to Adeeb Khalid’s interpretation of the origins of nation-building in Soviet Turkestan; Khalid, Making Uzbekistan, 116–18.
118. Smith, Red Nations: The Nationalities Experience in and after the USSR, 56–9.
119. Ammosova, Maksim Ammosov: publikatsii, vospominaniia, dokumenty, fotografii, 149.
120. Before that, Ammosov published an article in which he proved the effectiveness of the personnel available in the Yakut region: ‘All agitators who know the Yakut language were thrown into all remote corners. The impression made on the Yakut population by visiting agitators, organizing meetings and rallies was enormous. In January, a party week was held in Yakutsk. The number of the city organization doubled, and the working and Red Army masses joined the party. The Yakutsk city organization has 442 members and 54 candidates.’ See, Ammosov, S pomoshch’iu Russkikh rabochikh i krest’ian (Stat’i, rechi, vospominaniia, pis’ma). K 90-letiiu so dnia rozhdeniia M.K. Ammosova, 39–40.
121. Ammosov, S pomoshch’iu Russkikh rabochikh i krest’ian, 26.
122. On the Soviet nationality policy in general see Smith, “Was There a Soviet Nationality Policy?”
123. Alekseev, Federativnyi tsentr i avtonomiia: na primere Iakutskoi ASSR: 1917–1941 gg., 139–43.
124. Tebekin, Bor’ba za ustanovlenie i uprochenie Sovetskoi vlasti v Iakutii (sborniki dokumentov i materialov), 33.
125. The State Archive of the Russian Federation (GARF), f. P-1318, op. 1, d. 124, ‘Regulations on the People’s Commissariat for Nationalities, reports of members of the authorized commissions of the Central Executive Committee and the SNK for the Crimea, regional executive committees, autonomous Chuvash and Yakut regions of the SRT and the People’s Commissariat for Food of the Crimea, the economic state of Yakutia and Chuvashia,’ l. 3.
126. Ibid., l. 4.
127. Tebekin, Bor’ba za ustanovlenie i uprochenie Sovetskoi vlasti v Iakutii (sborniki dokumentov i materialov), 101–2.
128. Federov, Obrazovanie Iakutskoi ASSR (1917–1923 gg.): Sb. dok. i mat., 55.
129. Ibid., 56.
130. Ammosov, S pomoshch’iu Russkikh rabochikh i krest’ian, 43.
131. Federov, Obrazovanie Iakutskoi ASSR (1917–1923 gg.): Sb. dok. i mat., 52.
132. Ammosov, S pomoshch’iu Russkikh rabochikh i krest’ian, 47.
133. Ammosova, Maksim Ammosov: publikatsii, vospominaniia, dokumenty, fotografii, 150.
134. Vyshinky, Konstitutsii i konstitutsionnye akty RSFSR (1918–1937): sbornik dokumentov, 128.
135. Ammosov, S pomoshch’iu Russkikh rabochikh i krest’ian, 48.
136. Ibid., 50.
137. Avtonomnaia Iakutiia, no. 20, August 27, 1922.
138. Ammosov, S pomoshch’iu Russkikh rabochikh i krest’ian, 51–2.
139. Ibid., 55.
140. Sultanbekov, Tainy natsional’noi politiki TsK RKP. Chetvertoe soveshchanie TsK RKP s otvetstvennymi rabotnikami natsional’nykh respublik i oblastei v g. Moskve 9–12 iiunia 1923 g. Stenograficheskii otchet (tom 1923), 206.
141. Ammosov, S pomoshch’iu Russkikh rabochikh i krest’ian, 72.
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Aleksandr Korobeinikov
Aleksandr Korobeinikov is a historian of Russia and Siberia with a special emphasis on the late imperial and early Soviet Yakutia (Sakha) region. He is currently doing his doctoral research on the different logics of socio-economic imagination in postimperial Yakutia at the Central European University in Budapest and Vienna.