Socialist advisers and the dilemmas of the ‘socialist world system’: Sino-Soviet exchange as a model for failure in Guinea-Conakry, 1950–64

ABSTRACT

The dilemmas and tensions of the Sino-Soviet relationship in the 1950s were reproduced in Guinea-Conakry in the 1960s in the era of Decolonization. Socialist advisers brought their ‘Agreements on Scientific and Technical Collaboration’ as well as their socialist assumptions and activities to both China in the 1950s and Guinea-Conakry after 1958. By examining the socialist advisers’ activities, this article reveals that in both cases the advisers were inordinately interested in raw materials and consumer products in a way reminiscent of the colonial heritage. In both China and Guinea-Conakry, advisers were often domineering, generally privileged and sometimes even chauvinist. Instead of taking responsibility for the weaknesses of the socialist system, in both China and West Africa the advisers blamed their southern partners for the deteriorating relationship, and associated them with planning failures, inefficiency, incompetence, ‘demagoguery’ and authoritarian tendencies.

KEYWORDS:

• Sino-Soviet relations
• Global South
• Soviet foreign policy
• Guinea-Conakry
• Cold War

Acknowledgments

For commentary on previous drafts of this article, my thanks to Jan Zofka, Steffi Marung, Tao Chen, Peter Vamos, Ylber Marku, the participants of the Workshop on “Economic Dimensions of the Sino-Split and Alliance” sponsored by the Leibniz Institute for the History and Culture of Eastern Europe (GWZO), University of Leipzig, 1–2 July 2021, and the anonymous reviewers engaged by this journal.

Disclosure statement

No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).

Archives

Archiv bezpečnostních složek (Archive of State Security, Prague [ABS])

Archiv Ministerstva zahraničních věcí České republiky (Archive of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Czech Republic, Prague [AMZV])

Arkhiv vneshnei politiki rossiiskoi federadtsii (Archive of Foreign Policy of the Russian Federation, Moscow [AVPRF])

Gosudarstvennyi arkhiv rossiiskoi federatsii (State Archive of the Russian Federation, Moscow [GARF])

Národní archiv (National Archive, Prague [NA])

Politisches Archiv Auswärtigen Amts (Political Archive of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Berlin [PAAA])

Rossiiskii gosudarstvennyi arkhiv ekonomiki (Russian State Archive of the Economy, Moscow [RGAE])

Rossiiskii gosudarstvennyi arkhiv literatury i iskusstva (Russian State Archive of Literature and Culture, Moscow [RGALI])

Rossiiskii gosudarstvennyi arkhiv noveishii istorii (Russian State Archive of Contemporary History, Moscow [RGANI])

Stiftung Archiv der Parteien und Massenorganisationen der DDR im Bundesarchiv (Archive of Parties and Mass Organizations of the GDR in the German Federal Archive, Berlin [SAPMO-BArch])

Tsentralen durzhaven arhiv (Central State Archive, Sofia [TsDA])

Notes

1. Lorenzini, “The Socialist Camp and the Challenge of Economic Modernization in the Third World,” 348; Klein, Hänisch, ed. Geschichte der Aussenpolitik der Deutschen Demokratischen Republik, 66.

2. See Mark, Kalinovsky & Marung, eds., Alternative Globalizations.

3. The Russian terms in use were both sovetnik (adviser) and spetsialist (specialist), and the exchange included everything from newspaper editors to teachers to geologists, staying anywhere from two weeks to two years. The Chinese term was most often zhuanjia, perhaps best rendered as ‘expert’ and often associated with technological expertise.

4. July 21, 1959, “Postanovlenie”; July 27, 1959, “Postanovlenie”; and July 28, 1959, “Postanovlenie,” RGANI f. 11, r. 3812, op. 1, d. 45, l. 13, 28, 35.

5. April 14, 1953, Li He to F. Kartsev, RGANI f. 5, r. 5082, op. 28, d. 38, l. 9.

6. January 20, 1965, “Polozhenie o zemliachestvakh,” GARF f. 9518, op. 1, d. 69, l. 5.

7. On the advisers in China, see Kaple, “Soviet Advisers in China in the 1950s”; Kaple, “Agents of Change”; Jersild, The Sino-Soviet Alliance; Shen Zhihua, Sulian zhuanjia zai zhongguo (1948–1960); and Vámos, “Friendly Assistance and Self-Reliance.” Other works on socialist advisers include Hong, “Through a Glass Darkly,” 49–53; Unfried, “Friendship and Education, Coffee and Weapons,” 26–8; Büschel, Hilfe zur Selbsthilfe, 229–96; Mazanec, “Československý Hydroprojekt v Africe”; Mazanec, “Z Blanska do tropické Afriky”; and Engerman, “Learning from the East.”

8. See Lorenzini, Global Development, 49; Engerman, The Price of Aid, 351–6. Even the socialist bloc effort to educate and train young people from Africa and other developing countries in the Soviet Union and Eastern Europe produced disappointing results. See Matusevich, “Soviet Antiracism and Its Discontents.”

9. April 23, 1954, “Otchet o prebyvanii v SSSR gruppy vengerskikh meditsinskikh rabotnikov,” RGANI f. 5, r. 5108, op. 28, d. 158, l. 4.

10. February 22, 1955, PAAA A 1652, 26.

11. June 21, 1963, B. Ovezov, RGANI f. 2, r. 6311, op. 1, d. 657, l. 7; August 4, 1960, Kniazev, RGANI f. 5, r. 4625, op. 30, d. 327, l. 77.

12. January 16, 1969, “Festlegungsprotokoll,” Gerhard Weiss; August 4, 1969, “Direktive”; July 7, 1970, “Konzeption zur Gestaltung einer objektbezogenen und effektiven Ausbildung vietnamesischer Praktikanten,” SAPMO-BArch DE 3/791, 4, 7, 2.

13. Hong, “Through a Glass Darkly,” 47.

14. January 21, 1960, M. I. Agoshkov to A. G. Polozhenkov, RGAE f. 9493, op.1, d. 1063, l. 5–6.

15. April 1960, “Primery,” F. Kleimenov, RGAE f. 9493, op. 5, d. 59, l. 47.

16. December 12, 1953, D.T. Shepilov, RGANI f. 5, r. 5082, op. 28, d. 38, l. 110.

17. December 16, 1949, Record of Conversation, Stalin and Mao Zedong, in Westad, ed., Brothers in Arms, 318. Rubber plantations were established in the 1950s in Yunnan Province in southwest China.

18. Li Yueran, Zhongsu waijiao qinliji, 103; January 19, 1961, S.F. Laptev to D.A. Pronin, RGAE f. 9493, op. 5, d. 66, l. 3–4. For Stalin’s 1952 comments to Zhou Enlai, see Chen Jian, et al., “Stalin’s Conversations with Chinese Leaders,” 14–16.

19. March 9, 1950, “Shibaifu guanyu yu Mao Zedong tanhua qingkuang de baogao,” Zhongguo yu sulian guanxi wenxian huibian, 164–5; April 3, 1950, “Zapis’ besedy,” P.P. Shibaev and Mao Zedong, AVPRF f. 0100, op. 43, p. 302, d. 10, l. 84.

20. October 26, 1954, “Zapis’ besedy sovetnika po ekon. voprosam,” I.V. Arkhipov,” RGANI f. 5, op. 30, d. 72, l. 84–89.

21. December 12, 1953, D.T. Shepilov, RGANI f. 5, r. 5082, op. 28, d. 38, l. 110. Chinese Politburo member Zhu De continued to suggest to Pavel Iudin the transfer of Chinese labourers from the Northeast to the Soviet Far East as late as 1958: March 15, 1958, “Zapis’ besedy,” P.F. Iudin and Zhu De, AVPRF f. 0100, op. 51, p. 432, d. 6, l. 100.

22. February 19, 1952, “Poznámky k celkovej činnosti genérálneho konzulázu v Šanhaj,” 106.09/52, MZV TO – T 1945–55, ČLR, krabice 1, obal 2.

23. September 10, 1956, “Stenograma,” RGAE f. 3527, op. 13, d. 2577, l. 196.

24. 1960, “Chto zhelatel’no poluchit’ iz KNR,” RGAE f. 9493, op. 1, d. 1103, l. 65.

25. August 22, 1953, “Zhongyang guanyu jiaqiang yu sulian zhuanjia hezuo wenti de zhishi,” Jianguo yilai Liu Shaoqi wengao, 5: 261.

26. May 7, 1955, “Doklad,” S.S. Smirnov, RGAE f. 8157, op. 1, d. 4475, l. 13.

27. January 26, 1951, Colonel Rogov, RGANI f. 5, r. 5330, op. 14, d. 3, l. 37–40.

28. 1955, “Otchet o poezdke v KNR,” Postnikov, RGAE f. 8157, op. 1, d. 4475, l. 25.

29. March 24, 1953, “Zapis’ besedy,” A.S. Paniushkin and Gao Gang, AVPRF f. 0100, op. 46, p. 362, d. 12, l. 30.

30. April 12, 1957, A.P. Sorenzon to I.F. Kuriukov, RGAE f. 3527, op. 13, d. 2624, l. 88; 1955, F. Pogrebenko to N.A. Smelov, RGAE f. 8123, op. 3, d. 1167, l. 36; September 10, 1956, “Stenograma,” RGAE f. 3527, op. 13, d. 2577, l. 191–96.

31. April 28, 1953, RGAE f. 8123, op. 3, d. 1137, l. 158.

32. February 5, 1951, Colonel Shadrov to Sedliarevich, RGANI f. 5, r. 5330, op. 14, d. 3, l. 34–36; January 9, 1960, A. Doluda, RGANI f. 5, r. 5333, op. 14, d. 19, l. 100–02.

33. July 8, 1950, “Zapis’ besedy,” N.V. Roshchin and Luo Ruiqing, AVPRF f. 0100, op. 43, p. 302, d. 10, l. 121.

34. March 20, 1957, ‘Otchet,’ A. Lebedev, RGAE f. 8157, op. 1, d. 4476, l. 86.

35. May 10, 1957, A.S. Smirnov, RGAE f. 3527, op. 13, d. 2624, l. 111.

36. March 19, 1955, N.A. Bulganin to Liu Xiao, RGANI f. 5, op. 30, d. 116, l. 17.

37. Zazerskaia, Sovetskie spetsialisty, 44–9.

38. April 19, 1950, “Kontrakt,” RGAE f. 8123, op. 3, d. 1137, l. 234–36; March 12, 1957, L. Asanov, RGALI f. 2499, op. 1, d. 498, l. 5.

39. July 16, 1955, Zhang Wentian, RGAE f. 3527, op. 13, d. 2537, l. 21–22.

40. October 5, 1949, “Liu Shaoqi zai zhongsu youhao xiehui zonghui chengli dahui shangde baogao,” Zhongguo yu sulian guanxi wenxian huibian, 18; Li Yueran, Zhongsu waijiao qinliji, 45–6.

41. May 24, 1950, A. Sdobnov to A.M. Ivanov, RGANI f. 5, r. 5330, op. 14, d. 2, l. 38.

42. March 3, 1950, “Priem,” A. A. Gromyko and Wang Jiaxiang, AVPRF f. 0100, op. 43, p. 302, d. 8, l. 32.

43. January 14, 1958, “Postanovlenie,” RGANI f. 11, r. 3808, op. 1, d. 1, l. 70.

44. July 19, 1961, S. Stepanenko to K.N. Rudnev, RGAE f. 9493, op. 1, d. 383, l. 21.

45. January 24, 1958, A. Paniushkin to CC, RGANI f. 5, r. 5333, op. 14, d. 18, l. 7–16; August 10, 1956, A. Paniushkin, RGANI f. 5, r. 5333, op. 14, d. 17, l. 78.

46. March 11, 1957, “Perechen’,” AVPRF f. 0100, op. 50, p. 426, d. 29, l. 17; December 26, 1957, “Spravka,” RGAE f. 9493, op. 1, d. 21, l. 7–11.

47. July 10, 1958, “Konferentsiia chitatelei zhurnala ‘Druzhba,’ OKSD,” GARF f. 9324, op. 1, d. 12, l. 3–24; March 9–15, 1959, “Svodka pisem,” GARF f. 9324, op. 1, d. 85, l. 231–38.

48. July 30, 1959, F. Kleimenov to G.V. Aleksenko, RGAE f. 9493, op. 1, d. 1003, l. 53.

49. January 24, 1958, A. Paniushkin to CC, RGANI f. 5, r. 5333, op. 14, d. 18, l. 7–8.

50. June 29, 1962, S. Orudzhev to I.V. Arkhipov, RGAE f. 9493, op. 5, d. 185, l. 23.

51. Li Jie, Mao Zedong yu xin Zhongguo de neizheng waijiao, 97–8.

52. Li Qianyu, Cong Wanlong dao Aerjier, 54–66.

53. September 19, 1959, “Vnutripoliticheskoe, ekonomicheskoe i mezhdunarodnoe polozhenie KNR,” M. Zimianin, RGANI f. 5, op. 30, d. 307, l. 49–79. On conflicts over the Great Leap Forward, see Chan, Mao’s Crusade.

54. Machowski and Schultz, RGW-Staaten und Dritte Welt, 24; Tarnovskii and Mitrofanova, Stoimost’ i tsena na mirovom sotsialisticheskom rynke, 18, 60.

55. Friedman, Shadow Cold War, 117–18.

56. Potekhin, “On African Socialism,” 102. Also Klein et al., eds., Geschichte der Aussenpolitik der Deutschen Demokratischen Republik, 422.

57. April 4, 1963, Bruno Leuschner to Otto Winzer, PAAA A 14369, 196; April 1963, “Notizen,” PAAA A 14369, 218.

58. Getachew, Worldmaking after Empire, 142–70.

59. From Coker, “The Soviet Union and Eastern Europe,” 60.

60. May 6, 1963, “Erste Einschätzung der wirtschaftlichen Ergebnisse und Erkenntnisse der Afrika-Reise,” PAAA A 14369, 303; April 1963, “Einschätzung der Reise nach Nigeria vom 7. Bis 9. April 1963,” PAAA A 14369, 165; April 1963, “Zwischenaufenthalt im Königreich Marokko,” PAAA A 14369, 237.

61. Engerman, The Price of Aid, 297; see also Lorenzini, Global Development, 83–6, 108; Iandolo, Arrested Development, 111.

62. Lorenzini, Global Development, 48; see also Iandolo, Arrested Development, 9–10, 39–61.

63. Kilian, Die Hallstein-Doktrin, 226, 354; Engel and Schleicher, Die beiden deutschen Staaten in Afrika, 46–53; Muehlenbeck, Czechoslovakia in Africa, 1945–1968, 2–4; and Zídek, Československo a Francouzská Afrika 1948–1968, 17–18.

64. November 3, 1960, “Záznam,” Rudolf Barák, 00594102–60, ABS, Problematika Afriky, sign. A 6/2 i.j. 58, 4–5.

65. July 4, 1961, “Přehled čs.-guinejských styků,” 027.894/61-10, AMZV TO – T 1960–1964, Guinea, krabice 1, obal 7, 3; March 23, 1961, “Základní údaje o Guinejské republice,” Dr. Žák, 023.699/61-10, AMZV TO – T 1960–1964, Guinea, krabice 1, obal 7, 23.

66. July 19, 1960, Sékou Touré, SAPMO-BArch DA 4/281, 66.

67. November 10, 1961, “Záznam z meziministerstvé porady o čs. pomoci při tĕžbĕ bauxite v Guineji,” 033.068/61-10, AMZV TO – T 1960–1964, Guinea, krabice 1, obal 7.

68. March 20, 1962, “Zpráva o současné hospodářské a pólitické situaci Guineje, jakož i o dalších možnostech rozvíjení vzájemných styků,” 021.347/62-10, AMZV TO – T 1960–1964, Guinea, krabice 1, obal 8, 4; November 2, 1961, “Ke znárodnění Bauxit du Midi v Guineji,” ABS, Informace rozvědky od září do prosince, sign. A 2/2 i.j. 38, 103; Campbell, “Negotiating the Bauxite/Aluminium Sector under Narrowing Constraints,” 34.

69. October 16, 1961, “Zhodnocení současného vývoje vztahů Guinejské republiky s ČSSR, činnost v Konakry a další úkoly,” 031.411/61-10, AMZV TO – T 1960–1964, Guinea, krabice 1, obal 7, 5.

70. Campbell and Clapp, “Guinea’s Economic Performance under Structural Adjustments,” 428.

71. March 20, 1962, “Zpráva o současné hospodářské a pólitické situaci Guineje, jakož i o dalších možnostech rozvíjení vzájemných styků,” 021.347/62-10, AMZV TO – T 1960–1964, Guinea, krabice 1, obal 8, 3; Adamolekum, Sékou Touré’s Guinea, 75.

72. Similarly in Angola, see Pavel Szobi, “Czechoslovak Economic Interests in Angola in the 1970s and 1980s,” in Calori, Hartmetz, Kocsev, Mark and Zofka, eds., Between East and South, 176.

73. February 17, 1962, “Vorlage zur Bestätigung durch den Minister,” Güntler; February 9, 1962, Kirschey to CC SED, SAPMO DY 30/IV 2/6.10/232, 51; Büschel, Hilfe zur Selbsthilfe, 285–300, 476, 489–90.

74. July 18, 1961 “Poznatky o chování a činnosti některých našich expertů v zahraničí,” V. Koucký, NA – A ÚV KSČ, f. 02/2, sv. 316, ar.j. 401, b. 8, 4.

75. Mazanec, “Z Blanska do tropické Afriky,” 44; Hamerský, “Dvacet, třicet, lesníku, dřevařů a techniků?”

76. March 14, 1961, “Stellungnahme zu einigen Problemen der Arbeit unserer Vertretung,” Wilhelm Kirschey, PAAA A 15901, 6, 1.

77. February 1, 1962, “Aktenvermerk,” Wilhelm Kirschey, SAPMO-BArch DY 30/IV 2/6.10/232, 47.

78. Zídek, Československo a Francouzská Afrika 1948–1968, 36.

79. December 12, 1962, “Defraudăcní aféra v GR,” 0353/62, AMZV TO – T 1960–1964, Guinea, krabice 1, obal 3.

80. November 4, 1961, “Rozbor politické a hospodářské situace v Guinejské republice a její odraz na československo-guinejské vztahy,” V. Knap, 031.881/61-10, AMZV TO – T 1960–1964, Guinea, krabice 1, obal 2, 27.

81. Mazov, A Distant Front in the Cold War, 130–1.

82. January 2, 1962, “Zpráva o současné hospodářskéa politické situaci Guineje,” 021.347/62-10, AMZV TO – T 1960–1964, Guinea, krabice 1, obal 8, 1.

83. July 18, 1961 “Poznatky o chování a činnosti některých našich expertů v zahraničí,” V. Koucký, NA – A ÚV KSČ, f. 02/2, sv. 316, ar.j. 401, b. 8, 5. On East Germans “recklessly running through African women” in Tanzania, see Büschel, Hilfe zur Selbsthilfe, 476.

84. February 2, 1962, “Záznam o rozhovoru s vedoucím prvního afrického odboru ministerstva zahraničních vĕcí SSSR s. Švedovem,” 021.347/62-10, AMZV TO – T 1960–1964, Guinea, krabice 1, obal 7, 3, 2.

85. July 18, 1961 “Poznatky o chování a činnosti některých našich expertů v zahraničí,” V. Koucký, NA – A ÚV KSČ, f. 02/2, sv. 316, ar.j. 401, b. 8, 5.

86. November 4, 1961, “Rozbor politické a hospodářské situace v Guinejské republice a její odraz na československo-guinejské vztahy,” V. Knap, 031.881/61-10, AMZV TO – T 1960–1964, Guinea, krabice 1, obal 2, 27.

87. February 2, 1962, “Záznam o rozhovoru s vedoucím prvního afrického odboru ministerstva zahraničních vĕcí SSSR s. Švedovem,” 021.347/62-10, AMZV TO – T 1960–1964, Guinea, krabice 1, obal 7, 3, 2. For similar frustrations from Ethiopians, Tanzanians, Angolans and others, see Unfried, “Friendship and Education, Coffee and Weapons,” 26–8; Eric Burton, “Diverging Visions in Revolutionary Spaces: East German Advisers and Revolution from Above in Zanzibar, 1964–1970”; Pavel Szobi, “Czechoslovak Economic Interests in Angola in the 1970s and 1980s,” and Max Trecker, “The ‘Grapes of Cooperation’? Bulgarian and East German Plans to Build a Syrian Cement Industry from Scratch,” all in Calori et al., eds., Between East and South, 44, 107, 184; Büschel, Hilfe zur Selbsthilfe, 285–300, 476, 489–90.

88. March 20, 1962, “Zpráva o současné hospodářské a pólitické situaci Guineje, jakož i o dalších možnostech rozvíjení vzájemných styků,” 021.347/62-10, AMZV TO – T 1960–1964, Guinea, krabice 1, obal 8, 2; July 18, 1962, “Beshluβüber Maβnahmen zur Festigung der Wirtschafts und handelsbeziehungen der Deutschen Demokratischen Republik mit der Republik Guinea,” Willy Hüttenrauch to Anton Plenikowski, SAPMO-BArch DC 20-I/4/586, 85.

89. November 25, 1961, “Záznam meziministerstvé porady o čs. pomoci při tĕžbĕ bauxite v Guineji,” M. Memazalová, 032.830/61-10, AMZV TO – T 1960–1964, Guinea, krabice 1, obal 7, 3.

90. November 4, 1961, “Rozbor politické a hospodářské situace v Guinejské republice a její odraz na československo-guinejské vztahy,” V. Knap, 031.881/61-10, AMZV TO – T 1960–1964, Guinea, krabice 1, obal 2, 24.

91. February 13, 1962, “Situationsbericht im Handel mit Guinea,” SAPMO-BArch DY 30/IV 2/6.10/232, 65; June 1, 1962, “Protokoll,” Liebe and Thomas; June 18, 1962, Wegwerth to Günther, SAPMO-BArch DY 30/IV 2/6.10/232, 90–101.

92. March 20, 1962, “Zpráva o současné hospodářské a pólitické situaci Guineje, jakož i o dalších možnostech rozvíjení vzájemných styků,” 021.347/62-10, AMZV TO – T 1960–1964, Guinea, krabice 1, obal 8, 5–6.

93. July 4, 1964, “Vývoj čs.-guineských styků,” 027.894/61-10, AMZV TO – T 1960–1964, Guinea, krabice 1, obal 7.

94. November 3, 1961, “Plnění opatření provedených Výboru k odstranění nedostatků a stav technické pomoci poskytované hospodářsky měně vyvinutým zemím,” F. Krajčír, 9189/14, NA – A ÚV KSČ, f. 02/2, sv. 328, ar.j. 419, b. 2, 9–20.

95. June 25, 1962, “Über die Nationaldruckerei in Guinea,” Wilhelm Kirschey, SAPMO-BArch DY 30/IV 2/6.10/232, 117.

96. June 18, 1962, Wegwerth to Günther, SAPMO-BArch DY 30/IV 2/6.10/232, 101. Also March 11, 1964, Gürke to Dr. Lessing, PAAA A 15901, 73.

97. Zídek, Československo a Francouzská Afrika 1948–1968, 35.

98. April 24, 1960, G. Tanev, “Protokol No. 5,” TsDA f. 1b, op. 33, a.e. 426, 12.

99. November 4, 1961, “Rozbor politické a hospodářské situace v Guinejské republice a její odraz na československo-guinejské vztahy,” V. Knap, 031.881/61-10, AMZV TO – T 1960–1964, Guinea, krabice 1, obal 2, 27; January 15, 1966, “Činnost kapitalistických států v oblasti technické pomoci a účinnost u technické pomoci, poskytované ČSSR,” Ján Šebik, c.j. 0191/66, in AMZV TO – T 1965–69, Guinea, krabice 1, obal 16, 4.

100. February 7, 1962, “Vorlage für das Sekretariat des ZK der SED,” Otto Winzer, SAPMO-BArch DY 30/IV 2/6.10/232, 60–61.

101. November 10, 1961, “Záznam z meziministerstvé porady o čs. pomoci při tĕžbĕ bauxite v Guineji,” 033.068/61-10, AMZV TO – T 1960–1964, Guinea, krabice 1, obal 7.

102. Garavini, After Empires, 166.

103. December 18, 1961, “Schůzka delegace PB PDG, vedené gen. taj. Sékou Touré s velvyslanci ZTS,” V. Knap, 0329/61, AMZV TO – T 1960–1964, Guinea, krabice 1, obal 2.

104. February 9, 1962, Kirschey to CC SED, SAPMO-BArch DY 30/IV 2/6.10/232, 51; Büschel, Hilfe zur Selbsthilfe, 285–300, 476, 489–90.

105. July 18, 1962, to W. Ulbricht, “Wirtschaftsbeziehungen der DDR mit der Republik Guinea,” SAPMO-BArch DY 30/IV 2/6.10/232, 156; Zídek, Československo a Francouzská Afrika 1948–1968, 114–19.

106. Galenovich, Rossiia – Kitai – Amerika, 251–68; Jersild, “The Great Betrayal,” 159–69.

107. Mazanec, “Československý Hydroprojekt v Africe”; Mazanec, “Z Blanska do tropické Afriky”; and Hamerský, “Dvacet, třicet, lesníku, dřevařů a techniků?”

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Austin Jersild

Austin Jersild is Professor of History and an Affiliate of the Graduate Program in International Studies at Old Dominion University in Norfolk, Virginia.