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ABSTRACT
This article analyses Tunisian President Kais Saied's abuse of counterterrorism law and his culpability in the country’s democratic backsliding. Following his election in 2019, Saied, with a split government and a growing economic and political crisis, took extreme measures to end the political deadlock, including dissolving the country’s parliament and claiming emergency powers in 2021. We argue that Saied has moved beyond making temporary moves to ensure political stability and is now seeking to use the country’s counterterrorism law as both his “weapon and shield,” conducting a targeted arrest campaign against opposition figures, and solidifying his authoritarian control of Tunisia. The arrest campaign, conducted primarily under the 2015 counterterrorism law, commenced in early 2023 and has included several prominent political figures in Tunisia. The charges, often stemming from an offender’s political statements, were framed as violations of the counterterrorism law, and were therefore justified to stem the tide of extremism and terrorism in Tunisia. Such legal abuse has allowed Saied to present his authoritarian actions as within the limits of the rule of law, a common approach for entrenched authoritarians. The analysis of arrest patterns suggests that a continued abuse of the counterterrorism law will eventually erode Tunisia’s nascent democracy.
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to graciously acknowledge the funding and support provided by Loyola University Chicago’s Center for Engaged Learning, Teaching, and Scholarship (CELTS).
Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).
Notes
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2 Schaaf, “Contentious Politics in the Courthouse,” 139–76; Rajah, Authoritarian Rule of Law.
3 Varol, “Stealth Authoritarianism,” 1673.
4 Bajpai and Kureshi. “Mechanisms of Democratic Authoritarianism,” 1375–96.
5 Moustafa, “Law and Courts in Authoritarian Regimes,” 281–99.
6 Solomon Jr, “Courts and Judges in Authoritarian Regimes,” 122–45.
7 Ginsburg and Moustafa, Rule by Law.
8 Scraton, “Streets of Terror,” 130–58; Rajah, “Punishing Bodies, Securing the Nation,” 945–70.
9 Schotel, “Administrative Law as a Dual State,” 195–222.
10 Scraton, “Streets of Terror,” 130–58.
11 Vaughan and Kilcommins, “The Governance of Crime and the Negotiation of Justice,” 59–75.
12 Wang, “Politics of Crime Control,” 422–43, 422.
13 Fonseca, “Between Democratic Modernization and Authoritarian Punitiveness in Brazil,” 538–57.
14 Moustafa, The Struggle for Constitutional Power.
15 Merkotan, “From the Thirst of Power to Moral Impoverishment,” 1–14.
16 Aguilar, “Judiciary Involvement in Authoritarian Repression and Transitional Justice,” 245–66.
17 Spytska, “Criminal Prosecution as a Tool of Political Pressure on Opposition Forces by Authoritarian Regimes,” 259–74.
18 Roach, ed. Comparative Counterterrorism Law.
19 McCulloch and Pickering. “Suppressing the Financing of Terrorism,” 470–86.
20 Patane, “Recent Italian Efforts to Respond to Terrorism at the Legislative Level,” 1166–80; Pantazis and Pemberton, “Reconfiguring Security and Liberty,” 651–67.
21 Hamilton and Berlusconi, “Contagion, Counterterrorism and Criminology,” 568–84.
22 See for examples Bianchi, “Security Council’s Anti-Terror Resolutions and their Implementation by Member States,” 1044–73; Fenwick and Phillipson, “Covert Derogations and Judicial Deference: Redefining Liberty and Due Process Rights in Counterterrorism Law and Beyond,” 863–918; Hajjar, “The Counterterrorism War Paradigm versus International Humanitarian Law,” 922–56.
23 Guild, “The Uses and Abuses of Counter-Terrorism Policies in Europe,” 173–93.
24 Kadioglu, “Autocratic Legalism in New Turkey,” 445–71.
25 Josua, “What Drives Diffusion?” ogaa049.
26 Kadioglu, “Autocratic Legalism New Turkey,” 445–71.
27 Abozaid, “Digital Baltaga,” 5–19.
28 Kilbret, “The Terrorism of ‘Counterterrorism’,” 504–39.
29 Bermeo, “On Democratic Backsliding,”5–19, 5.
30 Wunsch and Blanchard, “Patterns of Democratic Backsliding in Third-Wave Democracies,” 278–301.
31 Bermeo, “On Democratic Backsliding,” 5–19.
32 Jee, Lueders, and Myrick, “Towards a Unified Approach to Research on Democratic Backsliding,” 754–67.
33 Grillo et al., “Theories of Democratic Backsliding,” 381–400.
34 Haggard and Kaufman, “The Anatomy of Democratic Backsliding,” 27–41.
35 Levitsky and Ziblatt, How Democracies Die.
36 Tudor, “Why India’s Democracy is Dying,” 121–32.
37 Hanley and Cianetti, “The End of the Backsliding Paradigm,” 66–80.
38 Diamond, “Democratic Regression in Comparative Perspective,” 22–42; Miao and Brownless, “Debate,” 133–49.
39 Foa, “Why Strongmen Win in Weak States,” 52–65.
40 Mounk and Foa, “The Danger of Deconsolidation,” 5–17.
41 Diamond, “Democratic Regression Comparative Perspective,” 22–42.
42 Gamboa, “How Oppositions Fight Back,” 90–104.
43 Tudor, “Why India’s Democracy Dying,” 121–32.
44 Haggard and Kaufman, “Anatomy of Democratic Backsliding,” 27–41.
45 Ibid.
46 Diamond, “Democratic Regression Comparative Perspective,” 22–42.
47 Grubman, “Coup in Tunisia,” 12–26; Marzouki, “Coup in Tunisia,” 5–11.
48 Marzouki, “Coup Tunisia,” 5–11.
49 Weilandt, “Divisions Within Post-2011 Tunisia’s Secular Civil Society,” 959–74; Weilandt, “Acceptance in Principle, Contestation in Practice: EU Norms and Their Discontents in Tunisia,” 507–24.
50 Cimini, “Authoritarian Nostalgia and Practices in Newly Democratizing Contexts,” 276–95.
51 Nassif, “Coup in Tunisia,” 27–39.
52 Grubman, “Coup Tunisia,” 12–26.
53 Santini, Limited Statehood in Post-Revolutionary Tunisia.
54 Zelin, Your Sons are at Your Service.
55 Cimini and Simoncini, “From Counter-Terrorism to Preventing Violent Extremism,” 97–123.
56 Letsch, “Countering Violent Extremism in Tunisia – Between Dependency and Self-Reliance,” 163–95.
57 Santini, Limited Statehood Post-Revolutionary Tunisia.
58 Hichir and Volk, “Tunisia’s Security Policy,” 298–320.
59 Andersen and Brym, “How Terrorism Affects Attitudes and Toward Democracy,” 519–29.
60 Tamburini, “Anti-Terrorism Laws in the Maghreb Countries,” 1235–50.
61 Gunay and Sommavilla, “Tunisia’s Democratization at Risk,” 673–81.
62 Grillo et al., “Theories of Democratic Backsliding”, 381–400.
63 Levitsky and Ziblatt, How Democracies Die.
64 Ibid.
65 Basic Law 2015–26, relating to combatting terrorism and preventing money laundering (2015) updated pursuant to Basic Law 2019–9 (2019) available online https://ctaf.gov.tn/data/uploads/pdf/6172e2e9284080.20621154.pdf (English) https://legislation-securite.tn/ar/law/44992 (French).
66 Other arrests reflecting authoritarian tendencies occurred in Tunisia during this period and have been challenged by human rights groups. These arrests are not included in our analysis because they do not fit under what the state has labelled a terrorist conspiracy case.
67 In collecting the universe of cases, we keep in mind that because of the sensitive nature of the arrests, it is possible that the full scope of the arrest campaign is not publicly available.
68 Zelin, Your Sons Your Service.
69 Hichir and Volk, “Tunisia’s Security Policy,” 298–320.
70 Human Rights Watch (HRW). Tunisia: Counterterror Law Endangers Rights. HRW, 2015, available at https://www.hrw.org/news/2015/07/31/tunisia-counterterror-law-endangers-rights. Paragraph 4.
71 Ibid.
72 Hichir and Volk, “Tunisia’s Security Policy,” 298–320.
73 Ibid.
74 Basic Law 2015–26.
75 Ibid.
76 HRW. An Analysis of Tunisia’s Draft Counterterrorism Law. HRW, 2014, available at https://www.hrw.org/news/2014/07/07/analysis-tunisias-draft-counterterrorism-law. Paragraph 3.
77 HRW, Counterterror Law Endangers Rights.
78 Mersch, “Tunisia’s Ineffective Counterterrorism Law.”
79 Basic Law 2015–26, 5.
80 Ibid.
81 Mersch, “Tunisia’s Ineffective Counterterrorism Law.”
82 HRW, Counterterror Law Endangers Rights; Mersch, “Tunisia’s Ineffective Counterterrorism Law.”
83 Mersch, “Tunisia’s Ineffective Counterterrorism Law”; Hichir and Volk, “Tunisia’s Security Policy,” 298–320.
84 Public Law 107–56 – Oct. 26, 2001, Uniting and Strengthening America by Providing Appropriate Tools Required to Intercept and Obstruct Terrorism (USA PATRIOT ACT), 106. available online https://www.congress.gov/107/plaws/publ56/PLAW-107publ56.pdf.
85 USA PATRIOT ACT.
86 Santini, Limited Statehood Post-Revolutionary Tunisia.
87 Zelin, Your Sons Your Service.
88 “Tunisia Election: Kais Saied to Become President.” BBC, October 14, 2019. https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-50032460.
89 Grewal, “Kais Saied’s Power Grab in Tunisia”.
90 Marzouki, “Coup Tunisia: Democracy Lost?” 5–11; Grubman, “Coup Tunisia: Transition Arrested,” 12–26.
91 Grubman, “Coup Tunisia: Transition Arrested,” 12–26.
92 Sadek, “Tunisia: New Constitution Consolidates Powers in the Hands of the President”.
93 Bajec, “Political Arrests in Tunisia Mark Escalation in Kais Saied’s Power Consolidation”; HRW, Tunisia.
94 Decree Law No. 2022–45, Relating to the Fight Against Offenses Relating to Information and Communication Systems (2022). https://legislation-securite.tn/law/105348.
95 Amnesty International, Tunisia Political Activists Unjustly Detained; HRW, Wave Arrests Targets Critics.
96 Amnesty International, Tunisia Political Activists Detained; HRW, Wave Arrests Targets Critics.
97 Presidence Tunisie. “زيارة رئيس الجمهورية قيس سعيد إلى مقر وزارة الداخلية ]Visit of President Kais Saied to the headquarters of the Ministry of Interior].” Facebook, February 14, 2023. https://www.facebook.com/Presidence.tn/videos/609398257754747/; Presidential Activity. “زيارة رئيس الجمهورية قيس سعيد إلى مقر وزارة الداخلية ]Visit of President Kais Saied to the headquarters of the Ministry of Interior].” Presidency of the Republic of Tunisia, February 14, 2023. https://www.carthage.tn/?q = ar/%D8%B2%D9%8A%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%A9-%D8%B1%D8%A6%D9%8A%D8%B3-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AC%D9%85%D9%87%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%A9-%D9%82%D9%8A%D8%B3-%D8%B3%D8%B9%D9%8A%D8%AF-%D8%A5%D9%84%D9%89-%D9%85%D9%82%D8%B1-%D9%88%D8%B2%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%A9-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AF%D8%A7%D8%AE%D9%84%D9%8A%D8%A9.
98 Presidence Tunisie. “Visit President Kais Saied;” Bajec, “Politics Arrests Mark Escalation.”
99 Presidencie Tunisie. “لقاء رئيس الجمهورية قيس سعيد مع السيّدة كلثوم بن رجب، وزيرة التجارة وتنمية الصادرات ]Meeting of the President of the Republic, Kais Saied, with Mrs. Kalthoum Ben Rajab, Minister of Trade and Export Development].” Facebook, February 14, 2023. https://www.facebook.com/Presidence.tn/videos/518716700373766/; Presidential Activity. “زيارة رئيس الجمهورية قيس سعيد إلى مقر وزارة الداخلية ]Visit of President Kais Saied to the headquarters of the Ministry of Interior].” Presidency of the Republic of Tunisia, February 14, 2023. https://www.carthage.tn/?q = ar/%D9%84%D9%82%D8%A7%D8%A1-%D8%B1%D8%A6%D9%8A%D8%B3-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AC%D9%85%D9%87%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%A9-%D9%82%D9%8A%D8%B3-%D8%B3%D8%B9%D9%8A%D8%AF-%D9%85%D8%B9-%D9%88%D8%B2%D9%8A%D8%B1%D8%A9-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AA%D8%AC%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%A9-%D9%88%D8%AA%D9%86%D9%85%D9%8A%D8%A9-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B5%D8%A7%D8%AF%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%AA-0.
100 Tunisian Presidency (@TNPresidency). “سير الأبحاث في قضية التآمر على أمن الدولة الداخلي والخارجي وتجديد الحرص على معرفة الحقيقة كاملة في كنف الاحترام التام للقانون أبرز محاور استقبال رئيس الجمهورية #قيس_سعيّد لوزير الداخلية السيّد توفيق شرف الدين، الذي كان مرفوقا بإطارات أمنية عليا . # TnPR. [The conduct of research on the issue of conspiracy against the internal and external security of the state and the renewal of the keenness to know the full truth in full respect of the law were the most prominent axes of the reception of the President of the Republic of Tunisia the Minister of the Interior, Mr. Tawfiq Charafeddine, who was accompanied by senior security officials.].” X (formerly Twitter), February 17, 2023. https://x.com/TnPresidency/status/1626666626287296521?s = 20.
101 Yee, “Tunisia Arrests a Leading Opposition Figure”.
102 “Tunisia Police Arrest Three Prominent Officials of Ennahda Party.” Reuters, April 18, 2023. https://www.usnews.com/news/world/articles/2023-04-18/tunisia-police-arrest-three-prominent-officials-of-ennahda-party, paragraph 8; Vee, “Tunisia Arrests Leading Opposition.”
103 “Tunisia Police Arrest Officials,” Reuters; Tunisia: End Crackdown on Political Opposition. International Commission of Jurists, April 19, 2023. https://www.icj.org/tunisia-end-crackdown-on-political-opposition/.
104 “Tunisia Issues International Arrest Warrants Against 12 Ex-Officials.” Middle East Monitor, September 13, 2023. https://www.middleeastmonitor.com/20230913-tunisia-issues-international-arrest-warrants-against-12-ex-officials/, paragraph 1.
105 Ibid.
106 “Tunisia Issues International Warrants,” Middle East Monitor; “Tunisian Judge Issues International Arrest Warrants for Prominent Political Figures.” Reuters, September 12, 2023. https://www.reuters.com/world/africa/tunisian-judge-issues-international-arrest-warrants-prominent-political-figures-2023-09-12/#:~:text = TUNIS%2C%20Sept%2012%20(Reuters),news%20agency%20reported%20on%20Tuesday%2C; “Tunisia Issues International Arrest Warrants Against Top Staff Officials.” North Africa Post, September 13, 2023. https://northafricapost.com/71218-tunisia-issues-international-arrest-warrants-against-top-staff-officials.html.
107 Escalonilla, “New Wave of Arrests in Tunisia Against Profiles of Opponents of Kais Saied”.
108 “Appelle Président Saied arreter,” Kapitalis.
109 HRW, Wave Arrests Targets Critics.
110 Ibid.
111 “Tunisia Police Arrest Prominent Figures as Crackdown Continues.” Al Jazeera, February 22, 2023. https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2023/2/22/tunisian-police-arrest-prominent-dissident-as-crackdown-continues.
112 Amnesty International, Tunisia; HRW, Wave Arrests Targets Critics.
113 Bouazza, “Tunisia’s Islamist Party Leader is Sentenced to 15 Months in Prison for Supporting Terrorism”.
114 HRW, Wave Arrests Targets Critics; Bajec, “Political Arrests Mark Escalation.”
115 “Tunisie : nouvelle enquête judiciaire pour complot contre la sûreté de l’Etat.” Kapitalis, June 1, 2023. https://kapitalis.com/tunisie/2023/06/01/tunisie-nouvelle-enquete-judiciaire-pour-complot-contre-la-surete-de-letat/; “Tunisian Judge Opens New Probe into Political Figures, Lawyer Says.” Reuters, May 31, 2023. https://www.reuters.com/world/africa/tunisian-judge-opens-new-probe-into-political-figures-lawyer-says-2023-05-31/#:~:text = Tunisian%20judge%20opens%20new%20probe%20into%20political%20figures%2C%20lawyer%20says,-Reuters&text = TUNIS%2C%20May%2031%20(Reuters),for%20one%20of%20them%20said.
116 “Tunisie: silence, on verrouille les medias!” Kapitalis, June 17, 2023. https://kapitalis.com/tunisie/2023/06/17/tunisie-silence-on-verrouille-les-medias/; Reuters, “Tunisian Judge Bars Broadcast Media from Opposition Conspiracy Cases”, 17 June 2023, available at https://www.reuters.com/world/africa/tunisian-judge-bars-broadcast-media-opposition-conspiracy-cases-2023-06-17/.
117 “Tunisie: Nejib Chebbi devant le juge d'instruction anti-terroriste.” Kapitalis, June 16, 2023. https://kapitalis.com/tunisie/2023/06/16/tunisie-nejib-chebbi-devant-le-juge-dinstruction-anti-terroriste/; “Tunisie : Lazhar Akremi comparaîtra devant le Pôle antiterroriste ce 22 juin.” Kapitalis, June 22, 2023. https://kapitalis.com/tunisie/2023/06/22/tunisie-lazhar-akremi-comparaitra-devant-le-pole-antiterroriste-ce-22-juin/; “Tunisie : Ahmed Ben Mustapha auditionné par la brigade antiterroriste.” Kapitalis, August 7, 2023. https://kapitalis.com/tunisie/2023/08/07/tunisie-ahmed-ben-mustapha-auditionne-par-la-brigade-antiterroriste/.
118 “Tunisian Court Releases Prominent Radio Director from Prison.” Associated Press, May 25, 2023. https://apnews.com/article/tunisia-radio-director-released-bail-prison-d1aa144a4118086b446a13e671e98a8b; El Atti, “First Female Political Prisoner in Saied’s Tunisia, Chaima Issa, is Free”.
119 Amara, “Tunisian Judge Frees two Leading Opponents of President”; El Atti, “Female Political Prisoner Free;” Amara, “Prosecutors Block Release of Tunisian Opposition Figure Chaima Issa”.
120 “Tunisian Opposition Leader Chaima Issa gets Suspended Jail Term.” Al Jazeera, December 13, 2023. https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2023/12/13/tunisian-opposition-leader-chaima-issa-gets-suspended-jail-term.
121 “Affaire de ‘complot’: La détention des accusés prolongée de 4 mois.” Kapitalis, August 22, 2023. https://kapitalis.com/tunisie/2023/08/22/affaire-de-complot-la-detention-des-accuses-prolongee-de-4-mois/; “Tunisian Judge Extends Detention of Six Prominent Opponents of President.” Reuters, August 22, 2023. https://www.reuters.com/world/africa/tunisian-judge-extends-detention-six-prominent-opponents-president-2023-08-22/; “Affaire de ‘Complot’: La Détention des accusés prolongé de quatre mois.” Kapitalis, December 21, 2023. https://kapitalis.com/tunisie/2023/12/21/affaire-de-complot-la-detention-des-accuses-prolongee-de-quatre-mois/.
122 “Tunisia Politicians: Ghannouchi’s Sentence is a ‘New Attack on Opposition.’” Middle East Monitor, May 17, 2023. https://www.middleeastmonitor.com/20230517-tunisia-politicians-ghannouchis-sentence-is-a-new-attack-on-opposition/; Amnesty International, Tunsia.
123 Amnesty International, Ghannouchi Sentence “New Attack.”
124 Bouazza, “Tunisia Party Leader Sentenced;” Agence France-Press. “Extended Jail Term for Opposition Chief Ghannouchi.” Al-Monitor, October 31, 2023. https://www.al-monitor.com/originals/2023/10/extended-jail-term-tunisian-opposition-chief-ghannouchi#:~:text = The%20leader%20of%20Tunisian%20opposition,of%201%2C000%20dinars%20(%24314).
125 HRW, Tunisia.
126 Amnesty International, Tunisia; “Opposition Leader Suspended Term,” Al Jazeera; “A Military Court Convicts Tunisian Opposition Activist Chaima Issa of Undermining Security.” Associated Press, December 13, 2023. https://apnews.com/article/tunisia-opposition-issa-convicted-president-19c7071434f5c033d769f3d0441dc0a4.
127 Levitsky and Ziblatt, How Democracies Die.
128 Amnesty International, Political Activists Unjustly Detained. “Appelle Président Saied arreter,” Kapitalis; HRW, Wave Arrests Targets Critics.
129 Escalonilla, “New Wave Arrests Tunisia;” “Appelle Président Saied arreter,” Kapitalis; HRW, Wave Arrests Targets Critics.
130 Sellem, Mona Ben. “Tunisia Criminalizes Contacts with Western Diplomats,” Le Monde, March 25, 2023. https://www.lemonde.fr/en/le-monde-africa/article/2023/03/25/tunisia-criminalizes-contacts-with-western-diplomats_6020576_124.html; “Appelle Président Saied arreter,” Kapitalis; HRW, Wave Arrests Targets Critics.
131 Escalonilla, “New Wave Arrests Tunisia;” HRW, Wave Arrests Targets Critics; Bajec, “Political Arrests Mark Escalation.”
132 Ibid.
133 Amara, Tarek. “Tunisia Arrests More Prominent Critics of President.” Reuters, February 14, 2023. https://www.reuters.com/world/africa/tunisia-ramps-up-arrests-detains-radio-station-head-opposition-official-2023-02-13/; “Appelle Président Saied arreter,” Kapitalis; HRW, Wave Arrests Targets Critics.
134 Amara, “Arrests More Prominent Critics;” HRW, Wave Arrests Targets Critics.
135 Amnesty International, Tunisia Political Activists Detained; “Appelle Président Saied arreter,” Kapitalis; HRW, Wave Arrests Targets Critics.
136 HRW, Wave Arrests Targets Critics.
137 “Police Arrest Prominent Figures,” Al Jazeera; Amnesty International, Authorities Must Free Prisoners; “Chaima Aissa devant la chambre criminelle de la cour militaire.” Mosaique FM, May 12, 2023. https://www.mosaiquefm.net/fr/actualite-national-tunisie/1161764/chaima-aissa-devant-la-chambre-criminelle-de-la-cour-militaire.
138 “Tunisia Arrests Key Opposition Figure as Crackdown Escalates.” Al Jazeera, February 24, 2023. https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2023/2/24/tunisia-arrests-opposition-figure-ben-mbarek-family; HRW, Wave Arrests Targets Critics.
139 Ibid.
140 The New Arab Staff and Agencies. “Tunisia Press Syndicate Chief says he Faces Prosecution Over Protest.” The New Arab, February 21, 2023. https://www.newarab.com/news/tunisia-press-syndicate-head-facing-prosecution-over-protest; Bajec, “Political Arrests Mark Escalation.”
141 Bajec, “Political Arrests Mark Escalation;” “End Crackdown Political Opposition,” International Commission of Jurists; Amnesty International, Authorities Must Free Prisoners.
142 Amnesty International, Authorities Must Free Prisoners.; Bajec, “Political Arrests Mark Escalation.”
143 Bajec, “Political Arrests Mark Escalation”; Ullah, Areeb. “Tunisia Arrests Ennahda Figure Said Ferjani as Crackdown Escalates.” Middle East Eye, February 28, 2023. https://www.middleeasteye.net/news/tunisia-ennahda-saied-ferjani-arrest-crackdown; Ferjani, Kaouther. “My Imprisoned Father is the Freest Man I Know.” Al Jazeera, June 18, 2023. https://www.aljazeera.com/opinions/2023/6/18/my-imprisoned-father-is-the-freest-man-i-know.
144 “Tunisia Judiciary Orders Imprisonment of Former Environment Minister.” Middle East Monitor, March 11, 2023. https://www.middleeastmonitor.com/20230311-tunisia-judiciary-orders-imprisonment-of-former-environment-minister/.
145 Amara, Tarek. “Tunisia Arrests Another Union Leader – UGTT.” Reuters, March 16, 2023. https://www.reuters.com/world/africa/tunisia-arrests-another-union-leader-ugtt-2023-03-16/.
146 Yee, “Tunisia Arrests Leading Opposition;” “Tunisia Jails Opposition Leader Ghannouchi for 1 Year.” DW, May 15, 2023. https://www.dw.com/en/tunisia-jails-opposition-leader-ghannouchi-for-1-year/a-65631706; “Police Arrest Three Officials,” Reuters.
147 “End Crackdown Political Opposition,” International Commission of Jurists; Reuters, “Police Arrest Three Officials,” Reuters.
148 Ibid.
149 Ibid.
150 “Prominent Radio Journalist Zied el-Heni Arrested in Tunisia.” Al Jazeera, June 21, 2023. https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2023/6/21/prominent-radio-journalist-zied-el-heni-arrested-in-tunisia.
151 “Tunisia Places Senior Official in Main Opposition Party Under House Arrest.” Reuters, September 2, 2023. https://www.reuters.com/world/africa/tunisia-places-senior-official-main-opposition-party-under-house-arrest-2023-09-03/.
152 Redaction Africanews, “Tunisia: Opposition Leader Abir Moussi Arrested.” Africa News, October 4, 2023. https://www.africanews.com/2023/10/04/tunisia-opposition-leader-abir-moussi-arrested/; “Tunisia Detains Abir Moussi, Prominent Opposition of President: Lawyers.” Al Jazeera, October 4, 2023. https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2023/10/4/tunisia-detains-abir-moussi-prominent-opponent-of-president.
153 “Tunisia Issues International Warrants,” Middle East Monitor; “Judge Issues International Warrant,” Reuters; “International Warrants Top Officials,” North Africa Post.
154 Ibid.
155 Ibid.
156 Media Centre, “HRH the Crown Prince and Prime Minister Receives the Ambassador of the Republic of Tunisia.” HRH Prince Salman bin Hamad Al Khalifa, August 22, 2021. https://www.crownprince.bh/en/media-centre/news/10360/2021/8/22/HRH-the-Crown-Prince-and-Prime-Minister-receives-the-ambassador-of-the-Republic-of-Tunisia; Middle East Monitor, “Tunisia Issues”, supra note 101 (main document); Reuters, “Judge Issues”, supra note 103 (main document); North Africa Post, supra note 103 (main document).
157 Yahyawi, Aisha. “Tunisian Lawmaker Arrested in Criminal Case Released.” Anadolu Ajansi, July 31, 2021. https://www.aa.com.tr/en/middle-east/tunisian-lawmaker-arrested-in-criminal-case-released/2320487; “Tunisia Issues International Warrants,” Middle East Monitor; “Judge Issues International Warrant,” Reuters; “International Warrants Top Officials,” North Africa Post.
158 “I Have Warned Them … Former President of Ennahda Holds it Responsible for Events in Tunisia.” MENA Research and Study Center, August 2, 2021. https://www.mena-researchcenter.org/i-have-warned-them-former-president-of-ennahda-holds-it-responsible-for-events-in-tunisia/; “Tunisia Issues International Warrants,” Middle East Monitor; “Judge Issues International Warrant,” Reuters; “International Warrants Top Officials,” North Africa Post.
159 “Tunisia Issues International Warrants,” Middle East Monitor; “Judge Issues International Warrant,” Reuters; “International Warrants Top Officials,” North Africa Post.
160 Ibid.
161 Ibid.
162 Ibid.
163 Ibid.
164 Ibid.
Additional information
Notes on contributors
Addison K. Emig
Addison K. Emig is a recent graduate of Loyola University of Chicago having majored in Political Science and Global Studies with a minor in Spanish. Her primary academic interests lie at the intersection of comparative politics and international relations, specifically the causes and consequences of political violence and terrorism. She is pursuing a doctoral degree in these fields at Vanderbilt University
Michael J. Schumacher
Michael J. Schumacher, Ph. D., is a Lecturer in the Department of Criminal Justice & Criminology at Loyola University Chicago. His published research addresses the causes and consequences of terrorism, the links between democratization, authoritarianism, and political violence, conflict resolution and peacebuilding, and the impact of violent non-state actors on foreign policy making.