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Abstract
Despite the large amount of literature analysing the transition and the growing body of literature on the ‘coercive’ impact of the EU and NATO, the more ‘voluntary’ dimensions of policy diffusion remain under-researched. In fact, external influences have been quite substantial, and have manifested themselves in various ways, as an examination of the role of the most important international actors shows. Empirical evidence from an analysis of the transformations in the Czech Republic, Hungary, Poland and Slovakia permits the construction of a framework for the study of external influences on post-communist politics across the phases of transition.
Notes
1. See, for example, C. Offe, Varieties of Transition (London: Polity, 1996); K. Henderson (ed.), Back to Europe: Central and Eastern Europe and the European Union (London: UCL Press, 1999).
2. Offe, Varieties of Transition, p.47.
3. H. Kitschelt, Zdenka Mansfeldova, Radoslaw Markowski and Gabor Toka, Post-Communist Party Systems: Competition, Representation and Inter-Party Competition (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999); D. Mason, Revolution and Transition in East–Central Europe (Boulder, CO: Westview, 1996).
4. K.H. Goetz (ed.), Executive Governance in Central and Eastern Europe, special issue of Journal of European Public Policy, Vol.8, No.6 (2001).
5. G. Blazyca, ‘The Politics of Economic Transformation’, in S. White, J. Batt and P. Lewis (eds.), Developments in Central and East European Politics 2 (Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1998), pp.191–206.
6. M. Zaborowski, ‘Power, Security and the Past: Polish–German Relations in the Context of EU and NATO Enlargements’, German Politics, Vol.11, No.2 (2002), pp.165–88.
7. G. Pridham, ‘The International Dimension of Democratization: Theory, Practice and Inter-Regional Comparisons’ in G. Pridham, E. Herring and G. Sanford (eds.), Building Democracy? The International Dimension of Democratization in Eastern Europe (Leicester: Leicester University Press, 1994), p.11.
8. G. Schöpflin, Politics in Eastern Europe (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1993), chs.6–8.
9. J. Batt, East Central Europe from Reform to Transformation (London: Pinter/RIIA, 1991), pp.3–42.
10. A.M. Grzymala-Busse, Redeeming the Communist Past: The Regeneration of Communist Parties in East Central Europe (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002).
11. See the articles by Piotr Buras, ‘Polish Social Democracy, Policy Transfer and Programmatic Change’; and Vladimír Handl and Vladimír Leška, ‘Between Emulation and Adjustment: External Influences on Programmatic Change in the Slovak SDL’, in this collection, pp.88–108 and 109–126 respectively.
12. See the articles by Vladimír Handl, ‘Choosing Between China and Europe? Virtual Inspiration and Policy Transfer in the Programmatic Development of the Czech Communist Party’; and Dan Hough, ‘The Programmatic Development of the Eastern German PDS: Learning What from Whom and Under What Conditions?’, in this collection, pp.127–145 and 146–164 respectively.
13. L. Whitehead, ‘East–Central Europe in Comparative Perspective’, in Pridham et al., Building Democracy?, pp.32–59.
14. T. Garton Ash, The Uses of Adversity: Essays on the Fate of Central Europe (London: Penguin, 1989).
15. See the articles by James Sloam, ‘West European Social Democracy as a Model for Transfer’, in this collection, pp.71–87; and Buras, ‘Polish Social Democracy, Policy Transfer and Programmatic Change’.
16. A. Sakson, ‘Niemcy w Świadomości Polaków’, in A. Wolff-Poweska (ed.), Polacy wobec Niemców: Z Dziejów Kultury Politycznej Polski 1945–1989 (Poznań: Instytut Zachodni, 1993), pp.408–29.
17. K. Malinowski, ‘Asymetria Partnerstwa: Polityka Zjednoczonych Niemiec wobec Polski’, in Z. Mazur (ed.), Rola Nowych Niemiec na Arenie Mie¸dzynarodowej (Poznań: Instytut Zachodni, 1996); H. Teltschik, 329 Tage: Innenansichten der Einigung (Berlin: Siedler Verlag, 1991).
18. M. Zaborowski, ‘Polens Westgrenze – Zwischen Rationaler Politik und Historischer Erinnerung’, WeltTrends, No.23 (Summer 1999), pp.158–73.
19. K. Longhurst and M. Zaborowski, ‘America's Protégé in the East? The Emergence of Poland as a Regional Leader’, International Affairs, Vol.79, No.5 (2003), pp.1009–28.
20. V. Handl and C. Jeffery, ‘Germany and Europe after Kohl: Between Social Democracy and Normalization’, ESRC-IGS Discussion Paper, 11/1999, Birmingham; A. Hyde-Price, Germany and The European Order (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2001).
21. P. Kubicek, ‘European Union Expansion and the Spread of Democratic Norms’, unpublished paper delivered at the Arena/Cidel consortium seminar in Avila, Spain, May 2004.
22. A. Michta, Soldier-Citizen: The Politics of the Polish Army (Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1997).
23. T. Börzel and T. Risse, ‘When Europe Hits Home: Europeanization and Domestic Change’, European Integration Online Papers, Vol.4, No.15 (2000); C. Radaelli, ‘Whither Europeanization? Concept Stretching and Substantive Change’, European Integration Online Papers, Vol.4, No.8 (2000); C. Knill and D. Lehmkuhl ‘How Europe Matters: Different Mechanisms of Europeanization’, European Integration Online Papers, Vol.3, No.7 (1999).
24. See the chapters by H. Grabbe, and B. Lippert et al., in Goetz (ed.), Executive Governance in Central and Eastern Europe.
25. For alternative approaches to Europeanization, see J. Bornemann and N. Fowler, ‘Europeanization’, Annual Review of Anthropology, Vol.26 (1997), pp.487–514; see also M. Zaborowski, Poland, Germany and Europe (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2004).
26. See the chapters by H. Grabbe, and B. Lippert et al., in Goetz (ed.), Executive Governance in Central and Eastern Europe.
27. See Sloam, ‘West European Social Democracy as a Model for Transfer’; Handl and Leška, ‘Between Emulation and Adjustment’.
28. A. Philips, Power and Influence after the Cold War. Germany and East Central Europe (London: Rowman & Littlefield, 1999).
29. Information based on the author's contacts with the USAID offices in Warsaw, Poland.
30. Over and above these three Foundations, the CSU-linked Hanns Seidel Foundation has also been active in ECE since 1989, and more recently the PDS-linked Rosa Luxemburg Foundation and the Green Party-related Heinrich Böll Foundation have also looked to spread their ideas through the region.
31. Philips, Power and Influence after the Cold War, pp.148–9.
32. Initially after the end of communism the FES was unwilling to co-operate with the former communist parties; Christian Democratic parties, the natural allies for the KAS, did not became significant political forces in the region; the liberal FNS was also inhibited by the weakness of liberal parties in ECE: see Sloam, ‘West European Social Democracy as a Model for Transfer’; Buras, ‘Polish Social Democracy, Policy Transfer and Programmatic Change’; Handl and Leška, ‘Between Emulation and Adjustment’.
33. Philips, Power and Influence after the Cold War, p.151.
34. Information based on the author's contacts with the offices of the foundations in Poland.
35. Börzel and Risse, ‘When Europe Hits Home’.
36. Blazyca, ‘The Politics of Economic Transformation’.