Transitions in the Ottoman Waqf’s traditional building upkeep and maintenance system in Cyprus during the British colonial era (1878–1960) and the emergence of selective architectural conservation practices

Abstract

How did the Waqf, a widespread Islamic historic institution in the non-Western world which promoted traditional building upkeep and maintenance systems, cope with the emerging architectural conservation understandings of the modern era? How did colonial transfers of knowledge, expertise and political considerations influence these systems? The present study explores these questions by examining the case of the Ottoman Waqf (Evkaf) institution in Cyprus. By collecting and analysing archival evidence on conservation projects, initiated during the British colonial period between 1878 and 1960, a model framework of initiation, authorisation and implementation processes of the upkeep of the Waqf maintained properties has been identified. This framework has been used to show the transitional role of the colonial influence at different stages, which finally led to the dissolution of the Waqf system’s sustainable elements, and initiated the emergence of selective architectural conservation practices. By shifting the focus of conservation discourses to look specifically into the background dynamics of the institutional practice, a new argument has been developed. This revealed how heritage conservation practices are negotiated with the existing institutions and how they are transferred and/or transformed at different levels of institutional governance.

Keywords:

• Waqf
• traditional upkeep systems
• architectural conservation
• British colonial era
• Cyprus

Acknowledgements

This paper has been written based on the findings of a PhD research, which was undertaken by the author at the University of Manchester. The author wishes to thank to Dr Leandro Minuchin from Manchester Architectural Research Centre for his invaluable assistance during the analysis of the British era files (BEF). The copyright of the BEF coded documents referred to in this paper belongs to Cyprus Evkaf Administration.

Notes

1. Waqf, an Arabic word meaning ‘to prevent, restrain’, in Muslim legal terminology means to protect a thing from becoming the property of a third person. Waqfs have been rendered as endowments or foundation or institution with different qualifying adjectives like ‘religious’, ‘Islamic’, ‘Muslim’, ‘pious’, ‘charity’, etc. The word ‘waqf’ has been transliterated in numerous forms in different languages, such as, wakf, vakf and vakıf (plural awqaf, aukaf and evkaf) (Islahi 2003). The official departments which have been established to control the administration of waqfs are often named with the plural. For ease of understanding, this paper uses the word ‘waqf’ as it has commonly been used and turned into a global term in English literatures. On the other hand, staying true to its officially used name during the British colonial era, ‘Evkaf’ is used referring to the Waqf Department in Cyprus.

2. The word ‘upkeep’ will be used throughout this paper as a general expression including various physical interventions on the built properties, which were assumed by the concerned authorities as ordinary assets and which are ranging from various repairs to reconstructions and renovations. This expression will be used to define such practices during both the Ottoman and British colonial eras.

3. See for instance the petitions from the imam of the Mosque at Dali (Aziziye) requesting various maintenance works in 1882 (BEF 1882-4-72), in 1888 (BEF 1888-26-656), in 1891 (BEF 1891-48-1212) and in 1893 (BEF 1891-48-1212). Also see for repairing the roofs of the Tahtakale Mosque in Nicosia (BEF 1895-86-2059) and Zuhuri School in Larnaca (BEF 1896-80-1898).

4. See BEF 1886-10-286 for the involvement of the Commissioner of Famagusta as a mediator between the local community and the Evkaf regarding the required repairs at Ayasofya Mosque.

5. See for instance the petitions regarding the case of the mosque at Kalipornou (BEF 1887-19-502) and the case of the Saghir Mosque at Ktima (BEF 1891-55-1352).

6. See BEF 1899-347-7121 for the translation of Ahkam-ul Evkaf –the Ottoman Waqf legislation –into English in 1899.

7. See Seager (1883). Also, see the correspondence regarding the sanctioning of the expenditures for the required repairs to Sarai Onou Mosque in Nicosia (document, dated 18 May 1894 in BEF 1894-70-1692).

8. See the rebuilding of the Minaret of the Kebir Mosque at Paphos (BEF 1898-86-2060); rebuilding of Sarai Onou School (BEF 1898-86-2050); rebuilding of Sarai Onou Mosque (BEF 1900-91-2153).

9. See for instance the colonial officer C Dudley’s recommendation letter regarding the upkeep works of the Ayasofya Mosque in Famagusta, where he prioritised Portland cement over any other local binding material (BEF 1892-53-1306).

10. See Seager (1883, 80). Also regarding the contracts that he was awarded see BEF 1882-4-78, BEF 1887-20-516 and BEF 1892-54-1339.

11. See for instance no: 661, dated 21 January 1885 in BEF 1885-3-57 and documents in BEF 1904-121-2843 mentioning the local sensitivities.

12. See Cyprus Gazette 19 May 1905.

13. See for instance Jeffery’s involvement for the Arablar Mosque (BEF 1909-143-3336), the Ayasofya Mosque (BEF 1926-169-3896) and the Büyük Khan in Nicosia (BEF 1927-180-4057).

14. In one instance, the Evkaf administration was informed by the Commissioner of Nicosia that he received an application for assistance to rebuild the village mosque of Orta Keuy and that he hoped that Evcaf authorities would have assisted in the work (document, dated 18 March 1913 in BEF 1913-149-3485 (9)). Also, see the Evcaf Report of Delegates on Accounts for the year 1926 for the amounts granted in aid of repairs and buildings of schools and mosques at the villages upon petition (BEF 1927-168-3875).

15. The bill entitled ‘A Law to Consolidate and Amend the Law Relating to Antiquities’ published in Supplement to Cyprus Gazette No. 2441 10 May 1935.

16. See Özdoğan (1998), Atakuman (2008, 2010) for insights relating to the Kemalist heritage philosophy.

17. Cyprus Gazette 25 March 1937, 137; Cyprus Gazette 3 April 1940, 145.

18. Cyprus Gazette 10 May 1935, 324.

19. Cyprus Gazette No. 2821 of 21 March 1940.