Egyptian Intellectuals in the Shadow of British Occupation

Abstract

The 1930s bore witness to a turning point in the work of several important Egyptian intellectuals who were recognized for their Western inclinations. In light of the British presence in Egypt—which was accompanied by internal problems such as the economic crisis and the abrogation of the constitution by Prime Minister Sidqi—these intellectuals turned to Islamic-oriented writings. Their work was characterized by an anti-Western tone, and the general underlying message was that Europe was attempting to oppress as well as ‘westernize’ Islamic heritage. A claim that was frequently voiced by intellectuals was that orientalism, under the façade of scientific research, was consciously being used as a tool for undermining Islam as part of the cultural war between the East and West. The present article surveys the statements that were articulated on this topic by several of the era's most prominent Egyptian thinkers.

Notes

⁴ Emile Dermenghem, a French orientalist (born 1872).

¹ The same year in which al-Harawi's letter was published in al-Siyasa, two of his articles appeared in the journal al-Ma‘rifa (Knowledge): ‘Us and the Orientalists’ (June 1932), pp. 177–180; and ‘The Orientalists and their Damage to Islam and the East’ (October 1932), pp. 720–722. In 1936 he published an anti-orientalist book, The Orientalists and Islam, in which he presented himself as the supervisor of public health for the area of Misr al-Qadima (the old district in south Cairo).

² Husayn al-Harawi, ‘Athar al-mustashriqin fi-l-bah,th al-islāmi (radd ‘ala naqd)’, Mulhaq al-siyasa, 2805 (May 23, 1932), pp. 15–16.

³ The word mustashriqūn is the plural form of mustashriq, a modern expression that stems from the root sharq (east), which has been altered in the tenth conjugation. Its literal meaning is thus, ‘he who asks to become an easterner,’ or ‘he who thinks that he is an easterner.’ See: W. Wright, A Grammar of the Arabic Language (3rd edn) (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1975), pp. 44–45.

⁶ Muhammad Husayn Haykal, ‘Kayfa wa-limadha aktubu hayat Muhammad’, Mulhaq al-siyasa, 2805 (May 5, 1932), p. 1 similar sentiments are expressed in Haykal's memoirs, Mudhakkirat fi-l-siyasa al-misriyya (Memories from Egyptian Politics), Vol. 1 (Cairo: Maktabat al-Nahda al-Misriyya, 1951), pp. 329–330.

⁵ Muhammad Husayn Haykal, ‘Kayfa wa-limadha aktubu hayat Muhammad’, Mulhaq al-siyasa, 2805 (May 5, 1932), p. 1.

⁹ Idem, Thawrat al-’adab (The Revolution of Culture) (3rd edn) (Cairo: Maktabat al-Nahda al-Misriyya, 1965), p. 211.

⁷ Muhammad Husayn Haykal, ‘Kayfa wa-limadha aktubu hayat Muhammad’, Mulhaq al-siyasa, 2805 (May 5, 1932), p. 1, p. 32.

⁸ In essence, Haykal is referring to a single article from Spencer's monumental work, The Principles of Ethics.

¹⁰ A string of anti-British mass rallies and disturbances that commenced in March 1919 has been engrained in the Egyptian consciousness as ‘the 1919 Revolution’. These events eventually led to a unilateral British declaration on February 28, 1922 that terminated the protectorate. This was followed shortly after by the Egyptian declaration of independence.

¹¹ Haykal's contention is directed at irrational elements that had penetrated into Islam, especially into Muhammad's biography, under the aegis of religious scholars.

¹² Haykal, Hayat Muhammad (21st edn) (Cairo: Dar al-Ma‘arif, 1997), p. 31.

¹³ For further details see: P.J. Vatikiotis, The History of Modern Egypt from Muhammad Ali to Mubarak (4th edn) (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1991), pp. 286–297; Afaf Lutfi al-Sayyid-Marsot, Egypt's Liberal Experiment: 1922–1936 (Berkely and Los Angeles, CA: University of California Press, 1977), pp. 138–170; Israel Gershoni and James P. Jankowski, Redefining the Egyptian Nation, 1930–1945 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995), pp. 1–31.

¹⁴ Haykal, Fi manzil al-wahi (8th edn) (Cairo: Dar al-Ma‘arif, 1937), p. 22.

¹⁵ A Scottish orientalist (1819–1905), whose most important book was Life of Muhammad from Original Sources.

¹⁶ A Scottish orientalist (1819–1905), whose most important book was Life of Muhammad from Original Sources pp. 46–47.

¹⁷ Haykal, ‘Wujhat al-Islam’, Mulhaq al-siyasa, 2131 (October 14, 1933), p. 10. Republished in Al-Sharq al-jadid (The New East), (Cairo: Maktabat al-Nahda al-Misriyya, 1962), pp. 267–297.

¹⁸ H.A.R. Gibb, ‘Whither Islam’, in idem (ed.), Whither Islam? A Survey of Modern Movements in the Moslem World (London: Victor Gollancz, 1932), p. 376.

¹⁹ Haykal, Al-Sharq al-jadid, p. 284.

²⁰ The book is divided into two sections. The first part, which is more relevant to the subject at hand, is dedicated solely to Muhammad and was later published under the name The Life of Mahomet. Especially of interest is Irving's appendix to this part, which is called ‘Of the Islam Faith’, in the 1909 edition of the book, pp. 197–207.

²¹ According to Irving, the concept of predestination is one of the principles of the Islamic faith.

²² Haykal, Hayat Muhammad, pp. 441–448.

²³ Idem, Fi manzil al-wahi, p. 25.

²⁵ Taha Husayn, ‘Shi‘r wa-nathr’, al-Risala 10 (June 1, 1933), p. 39.

²⁴ During this period, Haykal was a senior member of the Liberal Constitutionalists and the editor of its mouthpiece. He would subsequently fill more senior positions: in 1943, he was appointed president of the party; between 1938 and 1945, he served as the minister for the affairs of state and minister of education in several governments; and chairperson of the Upper House of Parliament from 1945 to 1950.

²⁶ Haykal,‘Thawrat al-’adab, min Haykal ila Taha,’ al-Risala 11 (June 15, 1933), p. 41.

²⁷ Haykal,’Thawrat al-’adab, min Haykal ila Taha,’ al-Risala 11 (June 15, 1933), p. 41

³⁰ Ijnas Juldtsiher, Al-‘Aqida wa-l-shari‘a fi-l-Islam, tarikh al-tatawur al-‘aqdi wa- l-tashri‘ i fi-l-din al-islami (Cairo: Dar al-Katib al-Misri, 1946), p. 7.

²⁸ In Arabic the book is called, The Faith and Law in Islam, the History of the Religious and Legal Development of the Religion of Islam.

²⁹ On the cover of the book's first edition, Musa is described as a ‘lecturer in the Faculty of the Foundations of the Religion at al-Azhar.’ In the second edition from 1959, he appears as a doctor, lecturer, and head of the Islamic Law Department of the Law Faculty at Cairo's ‘Ain Shams University.

³¹ Ijnas Juldtsiher, Al-‘Aqida wa-l-shari‘a fi-l-Islam, tarikh al-tatawur al-‘aqdi wa- l-tashri‘ i fi-l-din al-islami (Cairo: Dar al-Katib al-Misri, 1946) p. 9.

³³ Sic.

³⁴ Sic.

³⁵ Sic p. 156.

³² ‘Abbas Mahmud al-‘Aqqad, ‘Abqariyyat Muhammad (2nd edn) (Beirut: Dar al-Kitab al-‘Arabi, 1969), p. 11.

³⁶ Sic pp. 160–161.

³⁷ Lassa Francis Lawrence Oppenheim, International Law, a Treatise, first published 1905.

³⁸ al-‘Aqqad, ‘Abqariyyat Muhammad, p. 85.

⁴¹ Idem, Matla‘ al-nur aw tawali‘ al-ba‘tha al-muhammadiyya (Daybreak or the Beginning of Muhammad's Mission) (Cairo: Dar al-Hilal, 1955) p. 75

³⁹ Idem, Haqa'iq al-Islam wa-abatil khusumihi (3rd edn) (Beirut: Dar al-Kitab al-‘Arabi, 1966), p. 8.

⁴⁰ Idem, Matla‘ al-nur aw tawali‘ al-ba‘tha al-muhammadiyya (Daybreak or the Beginning of Muhammad's Mission) (Cairo: Dar al-Hilal, 1955).

⁴³ Idem, Ma yuqal ‘an al-Islam (What is to be Said About Islam) (Cairo: Maktabat Dar al-‘Uruba, 1963) pp. 3–4.

⁴² Idem, Ma yuqal ‘an al-Islam (What is to be Said About Islam) (Cairo: Maktabat Dar al-‘Uruba, 1963).

⁴⁵ Idem, ‘Al-Sharq bayna al-taqlid wa-l-taqalid’ (The East between Imitation and Tradition). The article was broadcast during the 1940s, on an unknown date. It appears in the collection: ‘Ala-l-’Athir (On the Waves of the Site) (Cairo: Dar al-Fikr al-‘Arabi, 1947), p. 93.

⁴⁴ See al-‘Aqqad's article: ‘Limadha ana dimuqrati?’ (Why am I a Democrat?), al-Hilal (December 1, 1941), pp. 10–13.

⁴⁷ Idem, ’Azmat al-shu‘ub al-nafsiyya’ (The Mental Distresses of Nations), ‘Ala al-Athir, pp. 111–112 p. 114.

⁴⁶ Idem, ‘Azmat al-shu‘ub al-nafsiyya’ (The Mental Distresses of Nations), ‘Ala al-Athir, pp. 111–112.

⁴⁸ Idem, Haqa'iq al-Islam, p. 26.

⁴⁹ Opinions differ with respect to the exact year of Hakim[0]‘s birth, ranging from 1898 and 1903.

⁵⁰ Tawfiq al-Hakim, ‘Al-Difa‘ ‘an al-Islam’, al-Risala, 93 (April 15, 1935), pp. 576–580. Republished (with omissions) in the collection: Tahta shams al-fikr (Under the Sun of Thought) (Cairo: Maktabat al-’Adab bi-l-Jamamiz, 1941), pp. 21–39.

⁵¹ Tawfiq al-Hakim, ‘Al-Difa‘ ‘an al-Islam’, al-Risala, 93 (April 15, 1935), pp. 576–580. Republished (with omissions) in the collection: Tahta shams al-fikr (Under the Sun of Thought) (Cairo: Maktabat al-’Aadab bi-l-Jamamiz, 1941), pp. 21–39

⁵² The sentences that refer to Haykal and Taha Husayn appear in the al-Risala article, but were omitted in the collection Tahta shams al-fikr.