Genealogies of Fundamentalism: Salafi Discourse in Nineteenth-Century Baghdad

Click to increase image sizeClick to decrease image size

Notes

¹ Albert H. Hourani, Arabic Thought in the Liberal Age, 1798–1939 (Reissued. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983), pp. 222–244; Hamid Enayat, Modern Islamic Political Thought (Houndmills and London: Macmillan, 1982), pp. 69–83.

² David Dean Commins, Islamic Reform: Politics and Social Change in Late Ottoman Syria (New York: Oxford University Press, 1990), pp. 24–26.

³ H. Peres, ‘Al-Alusi’, Encyclopaedia of Islam, Vol. 1 (new edn, Leiden: Brill, 1954-), p. 425.

⁴ For an overview of the Salafiyya, see Basheer M. Nafi, ‘The Rise of Islamic Reformist Thought and Its Challenge to Tradition’, in Suha Taji-Farouki and Basheer N. Nafi (eds) Islamic Thought in the Twentieth Century (London and New York: I.B.Tauris, 2004), pp. 28–60; see also Itzchak Weismann, ‘Between Sufi Reformism and Modernist Rationalism – A Reappraisal of the Origins of the Salafiyya from the Damascene Angle’, Die Welt des Islams, 41 (2001), pp. 206–237.

⁵ R. Stephen Humpriys, Islamic History: A Framework of Inquiry (rev. edn, Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1991), pp. 187–208.

⁶ On the early development of the Islamic science of genealogy see Ignaz Goldziher, Muslim Studies, Vol. 1 (2 vols. London: George Allen and Unwin, 1967–1971), pp. 164–190; Tarif Khalidi, Arabic Historical Thought in the Classical Period (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994), pp. 49–54; Fred M. Donner, Narratives of Islamic Origins: The Beginnings of Islamic Historical Writing (Princeton, NJ: The Darwin Press, 1998), pp. 104–111.

⁷ Joseph Schacht, The Origins of Muhammadan Jurisprudence (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1950), pp. 71–73; G.H.A. Juynboll, Muslim Tradition (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1983), pp. 17–23; Fazlur Rahman, Islam (2nd edn, Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press, 1979), pp. 63–67.

⁸ Brinkley Messick, The Calligraphic State: Textual Domination and History in a Muslim Society (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1993), pp. 15–21.

⁹ Chris Barker, Cultural Studies: Theory and Practice (2nd edn, London: Sage Publications, 2003), p. 196.

¹⁰ Benedict Anderson, Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origin and Spread of Nationalism (rev. edn London and New York: Verso, 1991), pp. 37–46.

¹¹ Georg G. Iggers, Historiography in the Twentieth Century: From Scientific Objectivity to the Postmodern Challenge (Hanover and London: Wesleyan University Press, 1997), pp. 8–9, 12.

¹² Michel Foucault, The Archeology of Knowledge & the Discourse of Language (New York: Pantheon Books, 1972), p. 80.

¹³ Michel Foucault, ‘Politics and the Study of Discourse’, in The Foucault Effect: Studies in Governmentality (Chicago, IL: Chicago University Press, 1991), p. 55.

¹⁴ Steven Best, The Politics of Historical Vision: Marx, Foucault, Habermas (New York and London: The Guilford Press, 1995), pp. 94–100.

¹⁵ Michel Foucault, Madness and Civilization (New York: Vintage Books, 1973), pp. xx.

¹⁶ Best, Historical Vision, pp. 110–120.

¹⁷ Michel Foucault, ‘Two Lectures’, in idem, Power/Knowledge (New York: Pantheon Books, 1980), pp. 98, 122–123.

¹⁸ Michel Foucault, ‘Nietzsche, Genealogy, History’, in idem, Language, Counter-Memory, Practice (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1977), pp. 139–164.

¹⁹ Edward W. Said, Orientalism (New York: Vintage Books, 1979), p. 23.

²⁰ Timothy Mitchell, Colonising Egypt (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1988), p. 35.

²¹ The edition I used is, Nu‘man Khayr al-Din al-Alusi, Jala’ al-‘aynayn fî muhakamat al-Ahmadayn (Cairo: Matba‘at al-Madani, 1961) – henceforth Jala’. On Nu‘man al-Alusi see, Mahmud Sukhri al-Alusi, al-Misk al-adhfar fi nashr mazaya al-qarn al-thani ‘ashar wa'l-thalith ‘ashar (2nd edn, Riyadh: Dar al-‘ulum, 1982), pp. 110–116; Muhammad Bahjat al-Athari, A‘lam al-‘Iraq (Cairo: al-Matba‘a al-salafiyya, 1345 AH), pp. 57–63.

²² Jala’, pp. 1–5.

²³ See Henri Laoust, Essai sur les doctrines sociales et politiques de Taqi al-Din Ahmad b. Taimiya (Cairo: L'Institut Francaise d‘Archeologie Orientale, 1939); Emanuel Sivan, Radical Islam: Medieval Theology and Modern Politics (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1985).

²⁴ Michael Cook, ‘On the Origins of Wahhabism’, Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland, 2 (1992), pp. 191–202; David Commins, The Wahhabi Mission and Saudi Arabia (London and New York: I.B. Tauris, 2006), Ch. 1.

²⁵ Jala’, p. 30.

²⁶ George Makdisi, ‘Hanbalite Islam’, in M. Swartz (ed.) Studies in Islam (London: Oxford University Press, 1981), pp. 216–274.

²⁷ Nehemia Levtzion and John O. Voll (eds) Eighteenth Century Renewal and Reform Movements in Islam (Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 1987), Introduction.

²⁸ Jala’, p. 41.

²⁹ On the Ahl-i hadith movement see Barbara Dali Metcalf, Islamic Revival in British India: Deoband 1860–1900 (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1982), pp. 268–296; Claudia Preckel, ‘Islamische Reform in Indien des 19. Jahrhunderts: Aufstieg und Fall von Muhammad Siddiq Hasan Khan, Nawwab von Bhopal’, in Roman Loimeier (ed.) Die Islamische Welt als Netzwerk: Möglichkeiten und Grenzen des Netzwerkansatzes im Islamischen Kontext (Würzberg: Ergon, 2000), pp. 239–256.

³⁰ J.M.S. Baljon, Religion and Thought of Shah Wali Allah Dihlawi, 1703–1776 (Leiden: Brill, 1986); Saiyid Athar Abbas Rizvi, Shah Wali-Allah and his Times (Canberra: Ma ‘rifat Publishing House, 1980).

³¹ Bernard Haykel, Revival and Reform in Islam: The Legacy of Muhammad al-Shawkani (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003).

³² Itzchak Weismann, ‘The Naqshbandiyya-Khalidiyya and the Salafi Challenge in Iraq’, Journal of the History of Sufism, 4 (2004), pp. 236–238.

³³ See also Hala Fattah, ‘Wahhabi’ Influences, Salafi Responses: Shaikh Mahmud Shukri and the Iraqi Salafi Movement, 1745–1930’, Journal of Islamic Studies, 14 (2003), pp. 127–129.

³⁴ Jala’, p. 57.

³⁵ Jala’, p. 111. See Binyamin Abrahamov, ‘Ibn Taymiyya on the Agreement of Reason with Tradition’, The Muslim World, 82 (1992), pp. 256–273; Wael B. Hallaq, Ibn Taymiyya against the Greek Logicians (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1993).

³⁶ Basheer M. Nafi, ‘Abu al-Thana’ al-Alusi: An Alim, Ottoman Mufti, and Exegete of the Qur'an’, International Journal of Middle East Studies, 34 (2002), pp. 472–474.

³⁷ Jala’, pp. 134–135. On Khalid's theological position, see Itzchak Weismann, Taste of Modernity: Sufism, Salafiyya, and Arabism in Late Ottoman Damascus (Leiden: Brill, 2001), pp. 40–45.

³⁸ See Th. Emil Homerin, ‘Ibn Taimiyah's al-Sufiyah wa-l'Fuqara’’, Arabica, 32 (1985), pp. 219–244; Muhammad Umar Memon, Ibn Taymiyya's Struggle against Popular Religion (The Hague: Mouton, 1976).

³⁹ For Ibn Taymiyya's opposition to Ibn ‘Arabi see Alexander Knysh, Ibn ‘Arabi in the later Islamic Tradition: The Making of a Polemical Image in Medieval Islam (Albany, NY: State University of New York Press, 1999), pp. 87–111.

⁴⁰ Jala’, p. 68.

⁴¹ Esther Peskes, Muhammad b. Abdalwahhab (1703–92) im Widerstreit: Untersuchungen zur Rekonstruktion der Fruhgeschichte Wahhabiya (Beirut: Franz Steiner Ferlag, 1993).

⁴² Jala’, pp. 432–526; Weismann, ‘The Naqshbandiyya-Khalidiyya’, p. 238.

⁴³ See Laoust, Ibn Taimiya, pp. 153–178.

⁴⁴ Michel Chodkiewicz, An Ocean without Shore: Ibn ‘Arabi, the Book, and the Law (Albany, NY: State University of New York Press, 1993), pp. 54–57.

⁴⁵ Jala’, p. 164.

⁴⁶ Halil Inalcik, ‘Centralization and Decentralization in Ottoman Administration’, in Thomas Naff and Roger Owen (eds.), Studies in Eighteenth Century Islamic History (Carbondale and Edwardsville: Southern Illinois University Press, 1977), pp. 27–52.

⁴⁷ For an account of the Mamluk period, see Stephen Hemsley Longrigg, Four Centuries of Modern Iraq (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1925), Ch. vi–ix.

⁴⁸ Tom Nieuwenhuis, Politics and Society in Early Modern Iraq: Mamluk Pashas, Tribal Shaykhs and Local Rule between 1802 and 1831 (The Hague, Boston and London: M. Nijhoff Publishers, 1982).

⁴⁹ ‘Ali al-Suwaydi, al-‘Iqd al-thamin fi bayan masa'il al-din (Cairo: al-Matba‘a al-Maymaniyya, 1325 AH). For an analysis of the book see Butrus Abu-Manneh, ‘Salafiyya and the Rise of the Khalidiyya in Baghdad in the Early Nineteenth Century’, Die Welt des Islams, 43 (2003), pp. 356–361.

⁵⁰ ‘Uthman ibn Sanad al-Wai'li al-Basri, Matali‘ al-su‘ud: tarikh Iraq min sanat 1188 ila sanat 1242 AH/1774–1826 (Baghdad: Wizarat al-thaqafa wa'l-i‘lan, 1991), pp. 268–269.

⁵¹ Abu-Manneh, ‘Salafiyya’, pp. 363–364; Nafi, ‘Abu al-Thana’, pp. 470–471.

⁵² Phebe Marr, The Modern History of Iraq (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1985), p. 22. Charles Tripp, A History of Iraq (2nd edn, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000), pp. 13–15. On the issue of the Ottoman administration's corruption see Christoph Herzog, ‘Corruption and the Limits of the State in the Ottoman Province of Baghdad during the Tanzimat’, The MIT Electronic Journal of the Middle East, 3 (2003), pp. 36–43.

⁵³ Butrus Abu-Manneh, Studies on Islam and the Ottoman Empire in the 19 ^th Century (1826–1876) (Istanbul: The Isis Press, 2001), Ch. V.

⁵⁴ Weismann, Taste of Modernity, pp. 49–55.

⁵⁵ Nafi, ‘Abu al-Thana’’, p. 477.

⁵⁶ Abu al-Thana’ al-Alusi, Ruh al-Ma‘ani fi tafsir al-Qur'an al-‘azim wa'l-sab‘ al-mathani (Beirut: Dar ihya’ al-turath al-‘arabi, 1970). For its analysis see Nafi, ‘Abu al-Thana’’, pp. 482–486.

⁵⁷ Abu al-Thana’ Shihab al-Din Mahmud al-Alusi, Kitab ghara'ib al-ightirab wa-nuzhat al-albab (Baghdad: Matba‘at al-Shabandar, 1327/1909), pp. 22–25; ‘Abbas al-‘Azawi, Dhikra Abi al-Thana’ al-Alusi (Baghdad: Sharikat al-tijara wa'l-tiba‘a, 1958), pp. 47–57.

⁵⁸ Roderic H. Davison, Reform in the Ottoman Empire: 1856–1876 (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1963).

⁵⁹ On Midhat's educational projects see Jamil Musa al-Najjar, al-Ta‘lim fi al-‘Iraq fi al-‘ahd al-‘uthmani al-akhir 1869–1918 (Baghdad, Dar al-suh ‘un al-thaqafiyya al-‘amma, 2002), pp. 99–120.

⁶⁰ Ami Ayalon, The Press in the Arab Middle East: A History (New York: Oxford University Press, 1995), p. 25.

⁶¹ Marr, History of Iraq, pp. 22–25; Tripp, A History of Iraq, pp. 15–18.

⁶² Jurgen Habermas: ‘The Public Sphere: An Encyclopedia Article’, New German Critique, 3 (1974), pp. 49–55. For a detailed exposition of the concept and its import, see Craig Calhoun, ‘Introduction’, in idem (ed.) Habermas and the Public Sphere (Cambridge, MA and London: The MIT Press, 1992), pp. 1–48.

⁶³ Calhoun, pp. 35–36.

⁶⁴ Athari, A‘lam al-‘Iraq, pp. 60–61.

⁶⁵ Selim Deringil, The Well-Protected Domains: Ideology and the Legitimization of Power in the Ottoman Empire, 1876–1914 (London and New York: I.B.Tauris, 1999), pp. 44–46. On the Ottoman administration of Iraq in this period see Jamil Musa al-Najjar, al-Idara al-‘uthmaniyya fi wilayat Baghdad: min ‘ahd al-wali Midhat Basha ila nihayat al-hukm al-‘uthmani, 1869–1917 (Cairo: Madbuli, 1991).

⁶⁶ Butrus Abu-Manneh, ‘Sultan Abdulhamid II and Shaikh Abu al-Huda al-Sayyadi’, Middle Eastern Studies, 15 (1979), p. 138.

⁶⁷ Athari, A‘lam al-‘Iraq, pp. 60–63.

⁶⁸ Thomas Eich, ‘The Forgotten Salafi – Abu l-Huda al-Sayyadi’, Die Welt des Islams, 43 (2003), pp. 72–75. For a critique of Eich's thesis that Abu al-Huda al-Sayyadi was himself a Salafi and the ally of the Salafis of Baghdad and other Arab cities see Itzchak Weismann, ‘Abu al-Huda al-Ñayyadi and the Rise of Islamic Fundamentalism’, Arabica, 54 (2007), pp. 586–592.

⁶⁹ James C. Scott, Domination and the Arts of Resistance: Hidden Transcripts (New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 1990), p. xii.

⁷⁰ On Mahmud Shukri al-Alusi see Muhammad Bahjat al-Athari, Mahmud Shukri al-Alusi wa-ara'uhu al-lughawiyya (Cairo: Jam‘iyat al-duwal al-‘arabiyya, 1958); Ibrahim Samarra'i, al-Sayyid Mahmud Shukri al-Alusi wa-bulugh al-‘Arab (Beirut: al-Mu'assasa al-jami‘iyya li'l-dirasat wa'l-nashr wa'l-tawzi‘, 1992).

⁷¹ Mahmud Shukri al-Alusi, Tarikh Najd (Cairo: al-Matba‘a al-salafiyya, 1924). For an analysis of the work see Commins, The Wahhabi Mission, pp. 134–140.

⁷² Fattah, ‘Wahhabi Influences’, pp. 138–144.

⁷³ Athari, Mahmud Shukri al-Alusi, p. 3; translated by Fattah, ibid, p. 138.

⁷⁴ Muhammad Salih Al al-Suhrawardi, Lubb al-albab, Vol. 2 (2 vols. Baghdad, Matba‘at al-ma‘arif, 1933), p. 222.